The Roles of Socio-Environmental Factors Influencing the Transmission, Prevention, and Control of COVID-19 and Tuberculosis Disease: A Review

Introduction@#Over the past two years, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and tuberculosis (TB) have killed over 5.7 million people globally. TB and COVID-19 continue to be significant public health problems worldwide. A growing body of research supports a link between socio-environmental factors and the transmission of COVID-19 and TB disease. @*Methods@#This review article discussed the socio-environmental factors influencing the transmission, prevention, and control of COVID-19 and Tuberculosis disease. @*Result@#In this review, we highlight similarities and differences between these two infectious diseases and explore the roles of socio-environmental factors (air pollution exposure and climate change) and socioeconomic factors in disease transmission. A comprehensive, integrated TB-COVID-19 management for prevention and disease control, which includes administrative, engineering, environmental control, effective personal protective equipment, and community-based public health activities were discussed.@*Conclusion@#Understanding the similarities and differences between these two infectious diseases and the role of socio-environmental factors in disease transmission helps in planning and strengthening an integrated system for disease prevention and control strategies.

The Impact of 2013 Haze on Emergency Department Utilizations for Acute Respiratory Diseases: A Retrospective Study

Introduction@#Haze imposes a substantial health burden especially in Southeast Asia where occurrences are frequent. Reduction in air quality levels has resulted in an increase in healthcare utilization, especially to the front door of healthcare, the emergency department (ED). Data on ED utilization during haze period is lacking. @*Methods@#This is a retrospective study aimed to determine the association between haze and ED utilization of haze-related acute respiratory illnesses between April 2013 to September 2013. The study period was divided into haze/ non-haze period. Clinical data was collected from the registration book and patients’ case notes. Environmental data was obtained from Institute of Environment and Development Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.@*Results@#Total number of patients presented to ED during the study was 32,661. Fifteen percent (n= 5177) presented with acute respiratory symptoms. Total Emergency Department visits during haze period reduced due to emergency declaration, hence reducing non-emergency visits. However, there was a significant increase in hospital admission (p=0.0015) and infective respiratory illnesses (p=0.001) during haze which correlates with increase air pollutant. Patients with chronic respiratory illnesses were more affected by haze (p = 0.001). PM10 and ozone were the main pollutant during the haze period.@*Conclusion@#Increasing pollutant levels from the haze significantly increases ED hospital admission. Evidence from this study can influence policymakers to prepare and allocate resources to hospitals in response to haze-related illnesses.

Environmental Risk Factors of Parkinson’s Disease: A Scoping Review

Introduction@#Risk factors for Parkinson’s disease (PD) fall into three broad categories, namely environmental, genetic, and lifestyle factors. Identifying environmental factors that increase the risk of PD would allow these exposure to be reduced and the disease prevented while facilitating experimental investigation of mechanisms and intervention options. Thus, the aim of this review is to summarise the current evidence on the role of environmental factors in the development of PD. @*Methods@#All original articles published between 2018 and 2022 and written in English were searched from three databases, i.e., PubMed, Scopus Web of Science (WoS), using combination of primary keyword (PD and its MeSH and synonyms), and two secondary keywords; (“environment*”) and risk (factor*). @*Result@#After a thorough screening process, nineteen articles were included in this scoping review. The environmental risk factors examined in the included studies fell into five categories: a) pesticide exposure, b) heavy metals and organic solvent exposure, c) drug abuse and d) air pollution and e) source of water.@*Conclusions@#In summary, PD is a complex neurological disorder for which there are several environmental risk factors involved. Identifying and reducing exposure to these environmental factors could have a significant impact on the future occurrence of the disease.

Filipino Students' Adversity Quotient and School Connectedness

Introduction@#The present study determined the adversity quotient (AQ) and the school connectedness (SC) of education students in one of the state universities in Region VII, Philippines and establish if there is an influence between AQ and SC. @*Methods@#Randomized sampling through fishbowl technique was employed in this study which were participated by one hundred (100) third year Education students from Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEED) and Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSED). There were two (2) major research tools used: AQ using student norm and self-made school connections checklist. @*Results@#The result revealed a significant relationship between overall AQ and SC of the respondents by computing Pearson Product Moment Correlation (Pearson r). However, the reach dimension of AQ showed no significant relationship between factors of SC. Lastly, AQ does not affect the respondents’ connectedness in school in factors like commitment to education and school environment.@*Conclusions@#Hence, this study concluded that AQ is a predictor of SC.

Pembinaan dan Validasi Soal Selidik Faktor Sosiobudaya berkaitan COVID-19 dalam kalangan Orang Asli di Malaysia

Pengenalan@#Soal selidik sebagai alat untuk mengukur faktor sosiobudaya berkaitan COVID-19 masih belum digunakan secara meluas oleh kebanyakan penyelidik. Di Malaysia, tiada soal selidik yang dibina dan disahkan untuk tujuan tersebut. Oleh itu, tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk membina dan mengesahkan soal selidik sebagai alat ujian yang baru bagi mengukur faktor sosiobudaya berkaitan COVID-19 dalam kalangan Orang Asli di Malaysia. @*Metodologi@#Kajian rintis ini melibatkan 30 orang penduduk Orang Asli di Pos Lenjang, Kuala Lipis, Pahang. Indeks Kesahan Kandungan (CVI) digunakan untuk menguji kesahan kandungan soal selidik, manakala kesahan konstruk dan kebolehpercayaan konsistensi dalaman soal selidik ditentukan menggunakan Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) dan Cronbach’s Alpha. @*Hasil Kajian@#Satu set soal selidik terdiri daripada empat konstruk telah dibina iaitu kepercayaan, amalan perubatan tradisional, adat dan budaya tradisional, dan sokongan sosial. Sebanyak 16 item telah dikekalkan di dalam EFA dengan nilai Cronbach’s Alpha setiap konstruk adalah 0.617, 0.778, 0.773 dan 0.779. @*Rumusan@#Soal selidik yang telah dibina ini berjaya divalidasi dan boleh digunakan untuk mengukur faktor sosiobudaya berkaitan COVID-19 dalam kalangan Orang Asli. Walau bagaimanapun, penambahbaikan masih perlu dilakukan dari masa ke semasa untuk memastikan soal selidik ini relevan terutamanya jika ia digunakan ke atas populasi atau dari negara yang berbeza dari Malaysia, dengan mengambil kira juga penyakit yang berbeza.

Population Growth Demand and Challenges of Health Equality Among Immigrants Towards Healthcare Services in Malaysia

Introduction@#Malaysia's economic development increases the demand for immigrant workers to ensure health equality. To achieve Universal Health Coverage, issues related to immigrants need to be revisited@*Methods@#A narrative review was conducted on specific scopes of health access barriers among immigrants from Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. @*Results@#Immigrants face health inequalities due to complex immigration policies, cultural and social adaptation differences, language barriers, financial constraints, and low literacy awareness of healthcare systems.@*Conclusions@#This brief essay highlights challenges for immigrants adhering to Malaysia’s Health White Paper strategies in meeting Universal Health Coverage. Expanding these strategies is vital to uphold immigrants’ fundamental rights and ensure health equality among the minority group of the population.

Demographic Characteristics Associated with Missed Follow-Up Appointments among Tuberculosis Patients at Hospital Shah Alam, Selangor: A Retrospective Study from January to June 2023

Introduction@#Tuberculosis (TB) patients default their treatment during the treatment course. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the demographic characteristics of the patient who missed follow-ups and identify the reasons for missed appointments or defaulted their treatment. @*Methods@#The records of patients diagnosed with TB follow-up at the chest clinic from January to June 2023 were reviewed based on our inclusion and exclusion criteria. @*Results@#The retrospective descriptive analysis was conducted based on the data collected. Based on the study sample (n=33), the result shows that the majority of the defaulted patients were male in gender (n=22). Most of the missed appointments patients and defaulters are of Malay (39.4%) ethnicity and Malaysian nationality (66.7%). Most patients gave the transport issues as the reason for missed appointments followed by financial issues and feeling healthy. The majority of them missed follow-up in the first month after starting anti-TB.@*Conclusions@#In conclusion, missed appointments, treatment compliance and defaulted cases in TB treatment remain as one of the main challenges in the effort to end TB epidemics. Further in-depth research is required to propose effective measures to solve this issue and improve the national TB control program.

A Cross-Sectional Study on Diploma Students' Knowledge, Attitudes, and Preventive Behavior about COVID-19 in Northeastern Thailand

Introduction@#COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2. @*Methods@#A cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practice of COVID-19 among diploma students. A total of 120 students were recruited from students of the diploma program at the Sirindhorn College of Public Health, Ubon Ratchathani, Northeastern Thailand. An online survey was obtained in June 2021. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the independent t-test to understand the relationship between variables. @*Results@#The results found that most participants were female (87.5%), and the mean age was 22 years. The participants (59.17%) studied the Diploma of Sciences program in Emergency Medical Operation. The majority of them (49.71%) were in the first year. 93.33% of them were not underlying diseases (49.71%). The majority of respondents (57.5%) had a strong knowledge of COVID-19 (mean=17, S.D.=1.83). The majority of individuals (66.7%) had a positive attitude (mean=3.24, SD=1.35), and 80 % had good COVID-19 preventive behavior (mean=3.54, S.D.=1.35). When comparison of variables between knowledge, attitude, and practice for the prevention of COVID-19. The relationship between COVID-19 preventative behavior and variables such as gender, study program, and attitude toward the virus was statistically significant at p<.05. @*Conclusion@#Even though our results indicate that the students had a positive attitude and practice regarding COVID-19. The knowledge, attitude, and practice about COVID-19 in participants' education remain to be continually improved.

Predictive Models for Forecasting Coronavirus Disease 2019 Cases: Relevance to Public Health Services

Introduction@# The global impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has continually jeopardized vulnerable populations encompassing children, youth, elders, and individuals with immunodeficiency and comorbidities. @*Methods@#In recognizing the crucial role of predictive analytics in shaping public health decisions, this study utilizes a predictive design, drawing on official data from the Department of Health (DOH) in the Davao Region, Philippines, spanning 57 days from March 15 to May 10, 2020. By comparing the Susceptible, Infected, Recovered (SIR) model and the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model, the research aims to provide a scientific foundation for informed decision-making by public health authorities. @*Result@#Analysis revealed that the SIR model emerged as the most effective in identifying trends and forecasting future cases. Despite both models indicating a substantial reduction in infection rates, caution is advised against discontinuing control and preventive measures due to the latent potential for another surge. The findings underscore the necessity for scientifically forecasted data to guide decision-makers in enhancing the responsiveness of public health services during similar and potentially worsening conditions. @*Conclusions@#Hence, this study contributes to the ongoing pandemic preparedness and responsiveness discourse. Its emphasis on predictive analytics, particularly the SIR model, offers valuable insights for authorities tasked with safeguarding public health. The significance lies in addressing the current situation in the Davao region and providing a template for future scenarios. As the world grapples with the unpredictable nature of infectious diseases, informed decision-making based on scientific forecasts becomes imperative for effective public health management.

Students Views and Perceptions on Outdoor Air Pollution in Iskandar Puteri, Malaysia

Introduction@#Air pollution and air quality are growing concerns among urban citizens of Southeast Asia, especially the University students who devote most of their days to the vicinity of campus. However, there is limited data available on the extent of the problem, as well as an understanding of the knowledge of and perceptions of people who may be exposed to poor air quality. @*Methods@#This focused study evaluated University students’ opinions, perceptions, and behavioral responses to local air quality in the Iskandar Puteri, Johor region of Malaysia using an online questionnaire, and measurements of NO2, SO2, formaldehyde, and particulate matter levels in the area using diffusion tubes. All air quality parameters were within the standards recommended by the local environmental authority, however, NO2 levels exceeded the recommended World Health Organization (WHO) standards at all sites. @*Results@#Questionnaire findings indicate that students most commonly suffered from respiratory diseases, and were very concerned about air pollution and its impacts. Respondents perceived the situation to be worse in the afternoons and weekends, corroborated by the PM2.5 readings in the area. Preferred preventive measures included wearing masks and limiting active time outdoors. @*Conclusions@#The evidence from this study highlighted the need to improve air quality in Iskandar Puteri as the NO2 level exceeded international standards for human health at all study sites. This could be supported by educational programs for industry, limitations on traffic emissions, and general awareness of air quality issues present locally.

The Effect of Healthy House Indicators on the Incidence of Acute Respiratory Infection in Tangerang Regency, Banten Province

Introduction@#A healthy home is a physical building that meets health criteria. The surrounding environment benefits physical and mental health and provides an appropriate social environment for family and individual health. Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) is one of the effects of diseases caused by houses that do not meet healthy housing standards. ARI incidence was ranked 5th in Banten Province, with a prevalence of 17.7%. This study aims to determine whether healthy home indicators affect the incidence of ARI in assisted families in Tangerang Regency, Banten Province. @*Material and Methods@#This analytic study with a cross-sectional approach was conducted on 115 Kresek Village and Kemiri Village residents, who were taken using a purposive sampling technique. Methods of data analysis using univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analysis using software IBM-SPSS version 29.0 and Microsoft Excel.@*Results@#ARI was found in 50.4% of people in the past three months. There was a significant effect (P<0.05) between the incidence of ARI and indicators of a healthy home, specifically the area of ventilation in the house (P=0.002, OR:3.5, 95% CI 2.1 - 28.4) and opening the windows in the family room (P=0.030, OR:3.5, 95% CI 1.3 - 10.78).@*Conclusion@#The indicator that most dominantly influenced the incidence of ARI in this study was the ventilation indicator. Thus, a strategy is needed to increase the use of ventilation by the people of Tangerang Regency.

Effectiveness of Combined Malaysia Healthy Plate Method (Halfhalf Quarter) and Physical Activity intervention at Workplace Setting Among Healthcare Workers

INTRODUCTION@#Overweight and obesity are becoming a major health issue which contributes to increase in health morbidity and mortality. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the mainly diet intervention and exercise for weight reduction among obese but healthy adults. @*METHODOLOGY@#This was a quasi-experimental study using designed Structured Diet Program adapted from Malaysia Healthy Plate method (half-half quarter) for weight reduction that lasts for 10 weeks. The anthropometry and biochemistry parameters were monitored and collected pre and 10 weeks post program. The WHO BMI criteria for Asian population cut off points was used to define obesity in this study. @*RESULT@#Thirty healthcare workers (HCWs) were recruited. However, only 27 HCWs completed the program. The pre and post program mean BMI was 32.90kg/m2 and 31.39kg/m2 and weight was 81.25 kg to 77.37kg. The total cholesterol reduced significantly with mean 5.65mmol/l to 5.34mmol/l. Other blood parameters showed some reduction but not statically significant with mean FBS 4.82mmol/l to 4.69mmol/l, mean HDL: 1.43mmol/l to 1.32mmol/l mean LDL: 3.54mmol/l to 3.42mmol/l and mean TG 1.52mmol/l to 1.31mmol/l. @*CONCLUSION@#Overall, the programme led to a considerable reduction in body weight, BMI, and Total Cholesterol. Even though other blood parameters do not show statistically significant reduction but they still showed some reduction post programme. This method is recommended to be implemented among Malaysians for longer duration to achieve significant reduction in blood parameters. However, the commitment and motivation of the HCWs are highly needed to ensure the effectiveness and adherence to the diet method.

The Use of Casemix System to Estimate Providers' Inpatients' Cost of Influenza Related Sari Diseases in Malaysia

Introduction: @#Influenza is an upper respiratory infection is caused by the influenza virus. It occurs throughout the whole year in Malaysia with occasional outbreaks. Influenza-like illnesses (ILI) are generally treated as outpatient care while the more severe (SARI) is managed in patient care. The Casemix system, used in healthcare professionals' practices, may help in estimating the cost of influenza management. @*Methods: @#This cross-sectional study extracts the cost of influenza management from different public hospitals in years 2016, 2017 and 2018. Data used selected ICD-10 codes, and the cost was abstracted from Malaysian Diagnostic Related Groups (MyDRG) software. The secondary data are from 2 sources, an urban teaching hospital Hospital Cancellor Tuanku Muhriz (HCTM) and Ministry of Health (MoH) inpatient hospitals database. The sample size of the study was 586, while a structured datasheet collating patients' sociodemographic data and cost of admission, per case, was obtained from the MyDRG software. Microsoft Excel and SPSS software were used in the analysis. @*Results: @#Most influenza cases (61.8%) are between the ages of 0 and 10, Malays, and have similar gender proportions. Overall, the influenza treatment cost for inpatient care, totalled to RM 294,017,112. In 2018, the GDP for health consumed 3.76% of Malaysia's GDP income of RM 1.4 trillion, with an estimated RM 60,339 million used for health. Thus, the three-year public cost consumed 0.5% of 2018 GDP.@*Conclusion: @#Influenza screening at the primary healthcare setting, health education and treatment compliance should be scale-up to minimize the cost of influenza management of the public providers.

A Scoping Review on Factors Influencing Milk Consumption Behavior Among Adults

Introduction@#Milk and dairy products are good sources of high-quality protein. Protein is important during weight loss and subsequent weight maintenance due to the high satiating effect which helps to prevent over-consumption of energy and thereby reduces body fat stores. Furthermore, dairy protein is a good source of essential amino acids for muscle protein synthesis and thus helps to maintain metabolically active muscle mass during weight loss. Regarding milk consumption, it is important to find the association between personal, environmental, and behaviour factors with consuming milk. @*Objective@#The aim of the study is to identify factors influencing milk consumption behaviour among adults. @*Methods @#This study is based on the literature review and on different case studies from different parts of the world to try to fulfill the main scope of factors influencing milk consumption. @*Results@#Based on this review, environmental factors were found to be the main influences on milk consumption behaviour, followed by personal factors and behaviour factors.@*Conclusion@#This review is also expected to enrich the documentation on the influencing of milk consumption behaviour among adults

Job Stress among General and Special School Teachers in Jahrom City, Iran

Introduction@#Teaching is among the careers which are associated with a lot of stress. Occupational or job stress is an unfavorable mental state which is caused by the workplace environment and can seriously impede employees’ performance. @*Objectives@#The purpose of this research was to compare occupational stress among general and special school teachers. @*Methods@#84 teachers (42 were general school teachers and 42 were special school teachers) from Jahrom, Iran were selected as study samples. Special school teachers and general school teachers were chosen using convenience sampling and multistage random sampling methods, respectively. Parker and DeCotiis’s job stress scale was used to assess job stress. The collected data were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). @*Results@#Results showed that job stress and its subscales were significantly higher among general school teachers than special school teachers (p <0.05); however, there was no significant difference between male and female teachers in terms of job stress and its subscales (p<0.05). @*Conclusion@#According to the findings of this study, the Ministry of Education is recommended to prevent job stress by improving the level of services where general school teachers work and holding workshops with the aim of offering teachers some coping strategies to deal with stress in schools.

The Use of Whatsapp Social Media Group for Nutrition Counselling among Parents with Children of Congenital Heart Defects

Introduction@#Ignorance about appropriate Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) Practices among parents of children with Congenital Heart Defects (CHD) can exacerbate malnutrition in these children leading to significant morbidity and mortality. Use of novel methods for Intensive Nutrition Counselling such as Whatsapp social media group can lead to considerable improvement in nutritional status of the child. @*Objectives@#To assess the efficacy of Whatsapp group for Intensive Nutritional Counselling to parents of children with CHD. @*Methods@#This is a two-year prospective interventional study, one-group before-after study design. Here, intervention is in the form of specialised focussed nutrition counselling for parents of children with CHD through Whatsapp social media group. @*Results@#Majority of the patients 16 (30.0%) were in the age group of 7-12 months, predominant diagnosis (25 patients i.e. 48.9%) was Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD). Sixty-eight percent patient-families belonged to lower socio-economic class. Before intervention, 71.1% of children (37 of 52) were found to be underweight, 35.5% children were stunted and 65.6% children were wasted. Post intervention there was significant improvement in all the 3 anthropometric indicators. This intervention particularly helped improve IYCF habits for the age group of 7-12 months. Post intervention all parents included the 8 food groups in their children’s diet thus providing them wholesome nutrition whereas earlier only 2-3 food groups were given to children on a daily basis. @*Conclusion@#This is the first study to explore use of Whatsapp group to educate parents of children with CHD about specific nutrition counselling, resulting in improvement in child anthropometric indices.

Identifying Vulnerable Population in Urban Heat Island: A Literature Review

Introduction@#The term "urban heat island" refers to a phenomenon that occurs when temperatures in urban areas are higher than those in the areas that surround them (suburban area). @*Methods@#The urban heat island phenomenon can result in increase of energy consumption, increase of air pollution, decrease of water quality, and increase of greenhouse gas emissions, all of which have the potential to negatively impact people in a variety of ways. @*Results@#In this review we identified certain groups such as elderly, children, woman, pregnant woman, single person, and minority communities, who are living in dense area or in high rise building, low education level, low income, work in outdoor environment and had pre-existing illnesses may face health issues or insufficient resources to cope with the heat in urban area. There were more susceptible to heat-related illnesses and mortality, particularly during extreme heat events.@*Conclusions@#Recognising these vulnerable populations is crucial to develop effective strategies to mitigate the effects of urban heat islands and protect them. This can aid policy makers and urban planners to implement targeted interventions to address these issues. Keywords Urban heat island – UHI – Vulnerable population – Heat exposure

Methodology of National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS): Adolescent Health, Malaysia 2022

Introduction@#In Malaysia, the adolescent health studies conducted in 2012 and 2017 revealed an increasing trend of adolescent health risk behaviours and protective factors. This current study aims to determine health risk behaviours and protective factors among adolescents in the country. @*Methods@#The current nationwide cross-sectional study of Malaysian secondary school students used multistage stratified sampling to select 240 nationally representative schools. This study was conducted from June to July 2022 among the students in forms 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in all Malaysian states by 34 data collection teams. A validated self-administered questionnaire was used, similar to those used in the NHMS 2012 and NHMS 2017. The quality control was done twice, once at the field level and once at the central level. Sample weighting and analysis were conducted using SPSS statistical software version 28.0.@*Results@#A total of 239 schools out of 240 schools took part in the study (response rate, 99.6%) and total of 33,523 students were involved in this study (response rate, 89.4%). In terms of ethnicity, the highest number of students who participated in the study were Malay (63.0%), followed by Chinese (18.1%) and Indian (6.0 %). While the distribution of sex and form among the students were almost the same. @*Conclusion@#To obtain an accurate representation of the nation's adolescent population for this study, samples from public and private schools that are governed by the Ministries of Education and Rural and Regional Development were deemed to be the most reliable.

Pengetahuan, Sikap dan Tingkah Laku Komuniti Sungai Klang Terhadap Pencemaran Sungai

Pengenalan @#Pencemaran sungai di Malaysia pada masa ini berada di tahap yang kritikal dan amat membimbangkan dengan pelbagai masalah pencemaran sungai berlaku hampir setiap hari. Tahap pengetahuan, sikap dan tingkah laku individu memberikan impak yang besar terhadap isu pencemaran sungai. Oleh itu, kajian ini bertujuan untuk menilai tahap pengetahuan, sikap dan tingkah laku komuniti yang tinggal berhampiran Sungai Klang. @*Metodologi @#Kajian keratan rentas yang menggunakan persampelan rawak mudah telah dilakukan untuk mengkaji tahap pengetahuan, sikap dan tingkah laku komuniti Sungai Klang terhadap pencemaran sungai. Responden kajian terdiri daripada penduduk kawasan setinggan dan penduduk kawasan perumahan biasa yang menetap berhampiran Sungai Klang. Kajian ini telah menggunakan borang soal selidik. Analisis deskriptif dan ujian t telah digunakan untuk menganalisis data. @*Hasil Kajian @#Hasil deskriptif mendapati bahawa tahap pengetahuan (min=3.13, s.p.=0.40), sikap (min=3.28, s.p.=0.65) dan tingkah laku (min=2.96, s.p.=0.72) pencemaran sungai bagi penduduk setinggan adalah lebih rendah daripada penduduk perumahan biasa. Ujian t juga menunjukkan perbezaan yang signifikan (p<0.05) untuk tahap pengetahuan, sikap dan tingkah laku antara penduduk setinggan dan penduduk perumahan biasa. @*Rumusan @#Kesimpulannya, tahap pengetahuan, sikap dan tingkah laku pencemaran sungai komuniti Sungai Klang berada di tahap yang tidak memuaskan. Oleh yang demikian, tindakan perlulah diambil oleh pihak yang berkaitan untuk memantapkan lagi tahap pengetahuan, sikap dan tingkah laku penduduk berkaitan pencemaran sungai agar isu pencemaran sungai ini dapat diatasi.

Housing and Indoor Factor Influencing Spread of COVID-19 – A Review

Introduction@#There has been growing recognition linking spread of COVID-19 with environmental factors. One of the environmental factors with robust epidemiological literature supporting its role in diseases is the housing or built environment. COVID-19 spread has been found to occur mostly at homes through secondary household transmission. As most people spend more times inside homes during the pandemic, household remains an important site of COVID-19 spread. The aim of this study is to examine how housing and indoor factors affect the transmission and spread of COVID-19.@*Methods@#This review employed a comprehensive search strategy to gather a broad range of scholarly articles and grey literature to provide a comprehensive understanding of the housing-related aspects of COVID-19 transmission.@*Results@#Three electronic databases (Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed) were searched using specific keywords related to COVID-19, housing, residents, neighborhoods, and indoor environments. Additionally, a supplementary literature survey was conducted to include relevant grey literature sources@*Conclusions@#This article summarizes the housing indoor factors involved in COVID-19 transmission, including the role of transmission from contaminated household surfaces. Indoor transmission of COVID-19 is found to be more likely due to contact transmission and close-contact aerosol transmission in a crowded, confined, and poorly ventilated indoor environment, related to poor housing condition. Whilst role of spread through contaminated household surfaces is of low probability. Based on this review, it can be suggested that besides the existing measures including avoiding crowding, close contacts and proper ventilation, specific standards for indoor environmental quality control and housing condition might be required. Housing is a public health issue and healthy housing is of universal concern.