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Background: COVID-19 infection can cause an exaggerated immune response. This immune response is associated with an increase in proinflammatory cytokines, especially interleukin-6 (IL-6). High IL-6 levels are found in the acute stage of COVID-19, and IL-6 can induce an excessive humoral inflammatory response. This study aimed to provide an overview of IL-6 levels in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients at Dr. M. Djamil General Hospital, Padang, Indonesia. Methods: Descriptive observational study of 102 research subjects. Observations on sociodemographic, clinical, and laboratory data were carried out in this study. Univariate analysis was carried out using SPSS version 25. Results: Patients with symptom onset <7 days had higher IL-6 levels than those with an onset of more than 7 days. Patients with critical degrees have the highest IL-6 levels compared to moderate and severe degrees. Patients with more than 1 comorbid had higher IL-6 levels than patients who had no comorbid or only had 1 comorbid. Patients with <21 days of treatment had higher IL-6 levels than patients with more than 21 days of treatment. Conclusion: COVID-19 patients at Dr. M. Djamil General Hospital, Padang, Indonesia, with an onset of less than 7 days, a critical degree, and more than 1 comorbidity have higher IL-6 levels.
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Undoubtedly, vaccination can be one of the promising approaches to control infectious diseases such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Inactivated viral vaccines have a history of "vaccine-induced enhanced disease", which may occur when neutralizing antibodies bind to viral antigens without blocking or clearing the infection. This can cause additional inflammation through the mechanisms described for other respiratory pathogens and lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome. Since the structure and function of SARS-CoV-2 glycoproteins are well known, vaccine manufacturers appear to be careful when inactivating the virus to completely inactivate and maintain the viral epitopes necessary for protective immune induction. It seems that caution should be taken in the usage of inactivated vaccines in children to ensure they are safe and efficacious, vaccinated children should be well monitored and any symptoms should be reported immediately.
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Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic illness that spreads from animals to people. Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan parasite that infects warm-blooded mammals, causes the sickness. Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection that causes abortion and death in animals. Cats are the parasite's sole sexual hosts, thus they're the only ones who can get it. Because cats are frequent pets, they are highly likely to come into touch with humans. As a result, the disease poses a risk to human health. The potential danger is influenced by the frequency of oocyst secretion and the level of contamination in the environment. Toxoplasmosis has serious consequences for both animal and human health, hence preventative actions should be taken to reduce the dangers. COVID-19 is affected by such methods as well. Toxoplasmosis is thought to increase immunological and immunosuppressive factors, which increases the chance of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the severity of the resulting COVID-19. Research into Toxoplasma gondii intermediate hosts might help understand COVID-19's dynamics and determine if the virus can be transferred from animals to humans. We explore what we know about Toxoplasma gondii infection as a human parasitosis and how it may alter the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection in this review study.
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BACKGROUND: Efficacy of COVID vaccines has been evaluated in various studies. The interim analysis from four randomized controlled trials in UK, Brazil, and south Africa regarding efficacy of two doses of the vaccine was found to be 70.4% (95.8% CI 54.8-80.6). There is a limited data on follow-up Ab titer post vaccination. Hence, the current study is first of its kind with the objective to determine vaccine long term efficacy and its determinants. METHODS: Health Care Workers (HCW) from Apollo Multispeciality Hospitals, Kolkata who underwent Covishield vaccination from January 2021 to April 2021 were included in the study. Serological testing was done prior to first and second dose of vaccinations, and additionally around six months post second dose. RESULTS: Between January 2021 to April 2021, 2032 HCW, with predominant age of less than 30 years (44.83%) and male gender (61.96%) undergoing Covishield vaccination were enrolled. Antibodies were detected in 953 (46.9%) individuals prior to first dose, 1449 out of 1495 (96.9%) remained positive prior to second dose and 465 out of 504 (92.3%) HCW after 6 months and remaining 39 (7.7%) either had lost or never had antibodies in their blood. The mean +or- SD value of first, second and third antibodies were 2.35 +or- 3.10, 10.46 +or- 4.84 and 8.75 +or- 4.88 respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides long observation period, covering the complete progress of the pandemic which provides a "real-life" picture of the antibody level dynamics over time, and after vaccination.
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Objective To investigate the dynamic changes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2) specific antibody IgG positive rate in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) survivors in China. Methods the relevant literatures about the positive rate of SARS-COV-2 specific antibody IgG in COVID-19 survivors in China were retrieved from PubMed, Embase, CNKI, Wanfang database and VIP database from December 2019 to February 24, 2022. The quality of the documents were assessed according the revised AHRQ (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality) statement. Freeman-tukey double arsinusoidal conversion method was used to calculate the positive rate, and StataSE15.0 software was used for statistical analysis. Subgroup analysis was performed according to detection method and fragment, and publication bias was examined by Egger method. Results A total of 12 articles were included, IgG was detected from the first month to the twelfth month after SARS-COV-2 infection, and the total sample size ranged from 74 to 2 907 cases per month. The positive rate was the highest in the second month and the third month, 96.35% (95% CI: 93.98%-98.14%) and 97.23% (95% CI: 94.47%-99.05%) respectively. The positive rate decreased gradually with time, and reached 73.63% (95% CI: 50.31%-91.45%) in the twelfth month. The results of subgroup analysis showed that the heterogeneity between studies with the different detection method and the different detection fragment were significant differences (X2=5.02-39.57, all P < 0.05). Egger method test published bias, and the difference was not statistically significant (t=1.85, P=0.101). Conclusion Most people, one year after infection with SARSCOV- 2, could still detect SARS-COV-2 specific antibody IgG.
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Introduction: Proinflammatory cytokines, produced as an immune response in severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 infection, activate the coagulation cascade as well. In this study, we investigated the difference in the clinical course of patients who had been already using anti-thrombotic therapy before coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) for any reason compared to the group who had not. Methods: In this retrospective, multicenter study;patients who were hospitalized between March 11 and July 1, 2020 were divided into two main groups as who had been on anti-thrombotic therapy for any indication use previously at the time of admission or who had not been on anti-thrombotic therapy at the time of admission, and their selected clinical parameters were compared. Results: After analyzing the study population of 124 patients with a homogeneous distribution in terms of age and gender, the comparison of anti-thrombotic users and non-users showed no significant difference in hospitalization. There was a statistically significant decrease in mechanical ventilation apply rate, intensive care unit duration and mortality rate between the group using anti-thrombotic compared to the group not using it (p<0.05). Conclusion: It has already been shown that COVID-19 patients are more prone to thromboembolic events as it activates the coagulation cascade with the cytokine storm it creates and thus the mortality of COVID-19 infection increases significantly. Parallel to this fact the results of our study demonstrated that using anti-thrombotic therapy for any reason may affect the bad prognosis of the disease positively.
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ObjectiveTo investigate the specific anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody in adults and above after initial vaccination with inactivated COVID-19 vaccine, and determine the influencing factors. MethodsIn this study, residents aged 18 and above who had completed two doses of inactivated COVID-19 vaccine in Deqing County, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province were included. Information such as gender, age, type of vaccine and vaccination time were collected, and serum specimens were sampled. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD) antibody was quantitatively examined by enzyma-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and influencing factors were determined. ResultsThe median concentration of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody in the residents vaccinated with an inactivated booster vaccine was higher than that in those vaccinated with only two doses of COVID-19 vaccine or single dose (P<0.05). The median concentration of IgG antibody in males was 9.73 (4.01-23.70) RUmL-1, lower than 17.76 (7.07-49.23) RUmL-1 in females (P<0.05). The median concentration in the residents vaccinated with BBIBP-CorV (Sinopharm) was 6.53 (0.97-13.69) RUmL-1, which was lower than that in those vaccinated with CoronaVac (Sinovac) that was 17.29 (8.54-43.73) RUmL-1 (P<0.05). The median concentration in those with BBIBP-CorV was also lower than 12 (5.45-40.06) RUmL-1 in those with heterologous booster vaccine (P<0.05). The median concentration was 9.73 (3.83-23.63) RUmL-1 in the residents with an interval of more than 6 months from the second dose, which was lower than 14.66 (6.36-35.98) RUmL-1 in those with an interval of 3-6 months (P<0.05). Moreover, immune effect was better in females (X2=16.464, P<0.05), 18-45 years (X2=7.158, P<0.05), and those vaccinated with CornaVac (X2=49.637, P<0.05), while decreased in those with an interval of more than 6 months from the second dose (X2=8.447, P<0.05). ConclusionGender, age, and type of vaccine may affect the effect of immunization. The COVID-19 vaccination shows an acceptable immunogenicity in adults;however, it declines in 6 months after vaccination. It warrants strengthening the booster vaccination to maintain the immune response.
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The COVID-19 pandemic continues to rage worldwide and the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant has now replaced the Delta variant as the leading epidemic strain. Omicron, as one of the SARS-COV-2 variants, incorporates the most critical mutations of the Alpha and Delta variants, and is characterized by having multiple mutation sites, high viral load, stronger infectivity and immune escape, which significantly reduced the protective effect of the vaccine. However, compared with the previous SARS-CoV-2 strains, the Omicron variant is less likely to infect lung tissue, it usually causes mild clinical symptom with reduced hospitalization rate, severe disease rate and fatality rate. Three doses of allogeneic vaccine can offer better tolerance and immunogenicity, and improve the protective effect of the vaccines. The application of small-molecule antiviral drugs and neutralizing antibodies can significantly reduce the hospitalization rate and mortality rate.In this paper, the epidemiological and characteristics of the Omicron variant were reviewed in order to provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment of the disease.
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The relationship between smoking and the lung damage volume in patients with a confirmed new coronavirus infection diagnosis, hospitalized in a temporary infectious hospital for the treatment of patients suffering from a new coronavirus infection and community-acquired pneumonia was evaluated. This was in the Odintsovo District's Patriot Park of the Moscow region. Smoking cigarettes, both active and passive, as well as exposure to tobacco smoke on the body, are important upper and lower respiratory tract infection risk factors due to local immune response suppression. Nevertheless, data from a number of international studies indicate a significantly lower number of hospitalized smoking patients compared to non-smokers. These indicators were investigated as the percentage and degree of lung damage, smoking history, the number of cigarettes smoked per day, and the smoker's index. In the course of the study, the data on a smaller percentage of smokers admitted to inpatient treatment were confirmed in comparison with non-smokers and smokers in the general population. There was no statistically significant difference in the volume of lung damage between smoking and non-smoking patients according to the chest organs computed tomography. At the same time, there was an increase in the volume of lung tissue damage, depending on the smoking experience. This is apparently due to the irreversible changes formation in lung tissue against a long-term smoking background. The median age of smoking patients was 56 years with a variation from 46 to 68 years. The minimum and maximum ages were 29 and 82. The median lung lesion was 32% with a variation from 23% to 39%. The minimum and maximum lung damage is 10% and 40%, respectively. A moderate correlation was found between the smoking experience and the volume of lung damage. An increase in lung damage by 0.309% should be expected with an increase in smoking experience by one full year. There was also no statistically significant difference in the number of cigarettes smoked per day and the smoker's index.
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The most significant single nucleotide human leukocyte antigen genes polymorphisms and innate immunity genes associated with varying degrees of acute respiratory infection severity are considered-COVID-19 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. As data accumulated, it became clear that the SARS-CoV-2 virus exhibits significant regional, ethnic, and individual specificity. This is due to the population groups' genetic characteristics. This is necessary to reliably know the human genotype relationship with the COVID-19 course severity (asymptomatic, mild, moderate, severe, and extremely severe up to fatal outcomes) for more successful therapy and vaccination. At the same time, it was also known that the innate immunity system is on the first line of defense against the pathogenic penetration into the body, and the human leukocyte antigen system encodes molecules of the same name on the surface of cells that present various antigens, including viral infection pathogens, and determine the severity of the course of many diseases;therefore, these systems' genes. This approach makes it possible to assess the likelihood of a severe and extremely severe disease course in healthy and infected people, which in turn contributes to the correct therapy strategy, pharmacotherapy, and vaccination, as well as to create new antiviral therapeutic and preventive medicines. The genetically determined immune response heterogeneity to SARS-CoV-2 infection requires further study, since there is no unambiguous opinion about the leading mechanism that determines disease severity.
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The recent vaccination campaign targeting the new coronavirus infection (COVID-19) carried out in the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, on the background of the current unstable global pandemic situation, makes it necessary to study post-vaccination population immunity to the SARS-CoV-2 virus and thus identify key features of immunity in organized military collectives. In the future, this will make it possible to objectively assess the risks of a worsening pandemic situation, effectively adjust the ongoing sanitary and anti-epidemic measures aimed at preserving and strengthening the health of military personnel, as one of the main conditions for maintaining the combat readiness of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. During a study conducted on epidemic indications, it was found that vaccination with Gam-Covid-Vac contributes to the formation of collective immunity with 95% effectiveness. A gender-based analysis of the immune response showed that the proportion of persons who lack class G immunoglobulins to SARS-CoV-2 among females is twice than that among men (9.3% and 4.7%, respectively). Seroprevalence indicators, classified by blood group, range from 94.4% (AB (IV) Rh-) to 97.4% (A (II) Rh-). There were no significant differences in seroprevalence between groups of people with different blood groups;however, the highest value of seroprevalence was seen among military personnel with blood group A (II) Rh-. In this context, it is advisable to continue monitoring the formation of immunity in individuals with various blood groups. The results obtained made it possible to form a primary medical and social "portrait" of a serviceman with the most adequate immune response to the introduction of the Gam-Covid-Vac vaccine (a man under the age of 20 with blood type A (II) Rh-) and to draw a conclusion about the high effectiveness of vaccination in military units (formations) staffed by conscripts and military educational organizations.
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Introduction: the daily increase in cases and deaths, the economic losses in the millions suffered by affected nations and the consequent strain on the human resources involved in reversing this situation have made the COVID-19 pandemic an unprecedented international challenge. Background: to describe the orchestrated immune response following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Methods: an up-to-date bibliometric study was conducted on the type of articles stated in the objective, using a total of 30 bibliographies. Documentary review and analysis-synthesis methods were used to prepare the final report. Resources available on the Infomed network were used to select the information, specifically: PubMed and SciELO, through the databases: Medline, Search Premier and Scopus. Development: the core elements in the immunopathology of COVID-19 involve innate immunity, with the sustained increase of pro-inflammatory interleukins associated with failures in the interferon system, which can trigger a potentially fatal cytokine storm. In terms of elements linked to adaptive immunity, there is evidence of marked lymphopenia which, depending on the degree, may indicate the severity of the disease. Conclusions: understanding the orchestrated immune response following SARS-CoV-2 infection and its temporal sequence allows us to choose timely and effective therapies, specifically when selecting anti-inflammatory drugs and the time of their application, as it is difficult to determine when they will be clearly beneficial, that they do not impair the response and that it is not too late, given the irreversibility of the process.
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Objective: To compare the clinical manifestations, liver function, and antibody levels between Omicron variant infection patients vaccinated and not vaccinated with COVID-19 vaccine. Methods: Totally 430 convalescent COVID-19 patients infected with Omicron variant in Tianjin were selected, including 150 patients vaccinated with Corona Vaccine(Sinovac group), 185 patients vaccinated with BBIBP-CorV(Beijing biological group), 41 patients vaccinated with Ad5-nCoV vaccine(CanSino group), 16 patients vaccinated with Anhui Zhifei, Changchun Bio, Lanzhou Bio, Shandong Bio, other adenovirus vector vaccines or mixed vaccination(other group), and 38 unvaccinated patients(unvaccinated group). The clinical manifestations, liver function indexes [alanine aminotransferase(ALT), aspartate aminotransferase(AST), total bilirubin(TB), albumin(ALB), total protein(TP), lactate dehydrogenase(LDH)], and antibody levels(IgG, IgM)were compared retrospectively. Results: There was no statistical difference in the sex composition ratio among groups(P > 0.05). The age of the Beijing biological group was significantly lower than that of other groups, and the proportion of time less than 3 months from the last vaccination to admission in the Beijing biological group and CanSino group was significantly higher than that in the Sinovac group and other groups(all P < 0.01). A total of 110 children aged less than 16 years were enrolled, including 7, 88, 0, 1 and 14 cases in the Sinovac group, Beijing biological group, CanSino group, other group, and unvaccinated group, respectively. There were 6 asymptomatic cases, 13 moderate cases, 91 mild cases and 0 severe case. There was no significant difference in the abnormal rate of ALT between Beijing biological group and unvaccinated group(P > 0.05), but the abnormal rates of ALT were higher in the Sinovac group and CanSino group than in the unvaccinated group and Beijing biological group(all P < 0.05). The abnormal rate of AST in the unvaccinated group was higher than that in other groups(P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in AST, TP or TB among the groups(all P > 0.05). The levels of ALT were higher in the Sinovac group and CanSino group than in Beijing biological Group and unvaccinated group, the level of ALB in the unvaccinated group was lower than that in the other groups, and the level of LDH in the Beijing biological group was higher than those in the Sinovac group and CanSino group(both P < 0.05). The IgG and IgM antibody levels of the unvaccinated group were significantly lower than those of the Sinovac group, Beijing biological group and CanSino group(all P < 0.05). Conclusions: Omicron variant infection patients vaccinated with BBIBP-CorV are younger and have a higher proportion of mild conditions, which can protect the liver function of patients to a certain extent. Patients vaccinated with different COVID-19 vaccines can produce higher levels of IgG and IgM antibodies than the unvaccinated patients.
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Patients suffering severe COVID-19 show an aggressive and excessive immune response against the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, known as a cytokine storm. If left untreated these patients face the risk of tissue damage, multi-organ failure and death. A high relative abundance of Prevotella copri has been reported in patients with newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis (RA). On the other hand, it has been observed that Prevotella histicola can modulate the inflammatory manifestations of autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis, and it is now being evaluated as a monoclonal microbial treatment in COVID-19. We observed that pre-treatment with P. histicola decreased NF-kB activation, while pre-treatment with P. histicola and P. copri decreased IRF activation in monocytes upon SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein. Our findings suggest that exposure of blood immune cells, such as monocytes, to commensal species of Prevotella may reduce the inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein. Besides treatments targeting the viral infection, other treatments such as immunomodulation by bacteria aiming to reduce or regulate the inflammatory process in COVID-19 to avoid the development of related complications may be considered.
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In general, B and T lymphocytes, which are involved in adaptive immunity, are in charge of cell-mediated response and antibody-mediated immunity, respectively. Another subset of lymphocytes, known as natural killer (NK) cells, are innate effector cells. They serve as the body's initial line of defence against viral infections. They perform the task of eliminating stressed cells and are crucial for tumour immunity. These cells are capable of performing their killing function without clonal expansion and differentiation following activation. The NK cells will immediately eliminate infected host cells but other lymphocytes need lymphocyte proliferative response which takes several days and further differentiate into effector cells, so that they eliminate host cells infected by the viral pathogen. The NK cells also form a bridge between the adaptive and innate immunity and play significant roles during respiratory infection. Number and the role of NK cells correlate with the severity of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS);the number and the percentage of CD158b+ NK cells in severe SARS infection were significantly less in number than those with mild cases. Innate defence mechanisms, particularly NK cells, are able to control SARS infection even in the absence of T cells and antibodies, according to cellular immunological responses to SARS infection in mice. As a result, NK cells are crucial in the fight against viral infections of the respiratory system. As an innate immune system, they serve as the initial line of virus protection. It is possible to do additional research to take advantage of this NK cell trait and develop a cutting-edge therapeutic approach to fight developing respiratory viral diseases.
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Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen which causes high mortality rate in humans. Dromedary camels may play a central role in virus transmission to humans. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4), a transmembrane protein located on the cell surface of many epithelial and endothelial tissues was identified as the receptor for MERS-CoV. The current study investigated the possibility that bacterial stimulation of camel blood could affect the expression level of DPP4 on camel leukocyte subpopulation, which in turn may contribute to the higher susceptibility of camels with bacterial infection to MERS-CoV infection. DPP4 expression was evaluated by membrane immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. Stimulation of camel blood with the bacterial species S. aureus or E. coil resulted in the upregulation of DPPV on both monocytes and granulocytes, while S. agalactiae did not significantly modulate DPPV expression on either of the immune cells (p > 0.05). None of the bacterial species could induce a change in DPPV expression on lymphocytes from stimulated blood. Collectively, the present study showed an enhancing effect of bacterial stimulation on DPPV expression on camel monocytes and granulocytes.
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Background: COVID-19 has largely affected humans with high infection spread and mortality rates globally including India with no specific vaccine or therapy proven effective for its management as the immune response to COVID-19 is not well understood. Covishield has been largely distributed and administered in Indian subjects. However, its efficacy and safety are still unclear raising doubts. Aim: The present study aimed to assess the efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of the Covishield vaccine in healthcare personnel in India. Methods: In 244 healthcare workers, SARS CoV2 IgG antibodies were assessed before and following the vaccination with two doses of Covishield given at 4 to 6 weeks apart. The efficacy of the vaccine and adverse effects after immunization were evaluated till two months after vaccination. The most common side-effect seen after the 1st dose was pain at the site of injection reported in 53.27% (n=130) study subjects followed by fever in 27.86% (n=68) study subjects, body ache in 22.95% (n=56) study subjects Results: Before vaccination, IgG was positive in 21.31% (n=52) study subjects and was negative in 78.68% (n=192) study subjects. Post-vaccination, IgG-positive status was seen in 69.67% (n=170) study subjects and was not seen in 30.32% (n=74) study subjects. In the infected group having 62 subjects, post-vaccination IgG positive was seen in 96.77% (n=60) study subjects and not seen in 3.22% (n=2) study subjects. In the uninfected group including the 182 subjects, post vaccination IgG positive was seen in 60.43% (n=110) study subjects and was not seen in 39.56% (n=72) study subjects respectively. After 2nd dose, the most common side-effect was pain at the site of injection seen in 24.59% (n=60) study subjects followed by headache in 12.29% (n=30) study subjects, fever in 7.37% (n=18) study subjects, body ache in 3.27% (n=8) participants, low backache and fatigue in 1.63% (n=4) study subjects each and local swelling in 0.81% (n=2) study subjects respectively. All the side effects had a non-significant difference except body ache which was significantly higher after 1st dose with p=0.02. Conclusion: Covishield vaccine has acceptable safety profile levels with increased seropositivity with more intervals in the two doses of the Covishield vaccine. Covishield does not prevent breakthrough infection. However, it can reduce the infection severity of COVID-19.
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There are some doubts about the exact relationship between neglected infectious diseases (NIDs) and COVID-19 disease, which remains to be clearly defined. The present review summarized the effect of parasitic infections as the risk factors or protective agents in the COVID-19 pandemic. Parasites could proficiently modulate immune responses. Thus, parasitic infections could have a different impact on the incidence and clinical severity of COVID-19 in different regions of the world. Also, restoring programs to prevent, treat, and control NIDs, in particular helminths, could help in reducing the incidence and mortality of COVID-19 in endemic areas and help to increase vaccination effectiveness. Changes in the gut microbiome associated with helminth infection may have systemic immunomodulatory effects toward suppressing host immune responses, reducing vaccine efficacy and increasing the severity of other infectious diseases. The cytokine storm observed in severe cases of COVID-19 is characterized by a predominance of proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6. However, it is possible that helminth infection could change the outcome of infection by modifying the Th2 response to limit the inflammatory component;this would be particularly apparent in areas endemic for helminthic infections, which suggests a possible protective effect against COVID-19. Because parasitic infections affect more than 2 billion people throughout the world, their impact on COVID-19- associated effects on public health could be considerable. Further studies with larger sample sizes would be needed to explore the possible role of neglected parasitic infections in the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Corona virus disease 2019 (Covid-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome-corona virus (SARS-CoV-2) was an ongoing global pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 affects human respiratory tract epithelial cells causing a pro-inflammatory cytokine stormed and chronic lung inflammation. Cytokine stormed was an offensive inflammatory response to Covid-19 infection in some patients. These cytokine storms could damage the lungs, digestive tract, brain, cardiovascular system, liver, kidneys, microcirculation, and eyes with many patients dying every day, efforts to found vaccines and special antiviral drug preparations were currently being explored. The mechanisms of probiotics, prebiotics, and diets with anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunity had presented opportunities for the discovery of microbial therapies to prevent and treat Covid19. Probiotics were lived microorganisms which when administered in appropriate and adequate amounts could provided health benefits for the human digestive tract. Prebiotics were selective food ingredients needed by intestinal probiotic microbes as a source of nutrients for their growth and viability. Various emerging scientific evidence supports the hypothesis that probiotics and prebiotics acted as antiviral and immunomodulators that could improved the human immune system. The mechanism of prebiotics in enhancing immunity against Covid-19 was by promoting the maturation, differentiation, and reproduction of lymphocytes and macrophages, activating the reticuloendothelial system, increasing the proportion of CD8+ IEL. The mechanism of probiotics in increasing immunity to fought covid-19 was by increasing the activity of t cells (T-suppressor), T-helper (CD4+), Natural Killer cells, increasing IL-10, increasing the phagocytic capacity of polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells.
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The new corona virus illness (COVID-19) swept around the world, quickly creating a serious international disaster. For the treatment and prevention of COVID-19, apitherapy appears to be a viable source of pharmacological and nutraceutical medicines. Honey, pollen, propolis, royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom, for example, have been demonstrated to have significant antiviral action against infections that cause severe respiratory syndromes, including those produced by human corona viruses. Furthermore, many of these natural products are involved in the induction of antibody production, maturation of immune cells, and stimulation of innate and adaptive immunological responses and many of them are involved in the induction of antibody production, maturation of immune cells, and stimulation of innate and adaptive immunological responses.