Carbon Tax: Moving Towards a Net-Zero Emissions Future

In the wake of the 21st century, climate change has emerged as the biggest lifethreatening challenge with a potential of evolving into the largest, if not the most complex, economic opportunity since the industrial revolution. While narrowing down its focus to carbon tax as a regulatory fiscal aspect of international economic law, this article explores the potential role of the tax in moulding this economic opportunity in line with the commitments assumed by countries under the 2015 Paris Agreement. The issue is whether imposition of carbon tax or restructuring tax rates can have a significant impact in regulating carbon emissions by rationally pushing consumers, investors, and producers, towards an environmentally sound direction. To answer this, the article investigates three carbon-tax implementation case studies;British Columbia, South Africa, and the revision of European Union Energy Taxation Directive in the context of aviation, with the aim to explore the scope of contributing factors – from adequate tax rate determination to optimum tax revenue use – in successfully curbing carbon-based emissions. Drawing upon the policy-efforts of the countries in the case studies, the challenges and the solutions, the article proposes a suggestive policy model of carbon-tax in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic, as the way forward in ensuring global carbon-neutrality.Alternate :In the wake of the 21st century, climate change has emerged as the biggest lifethreatening challenge with a potential of evolving into the largest, if not the most complex, economic opportunity since the industrial revolution. While narrowing down its focus to carbon tax as a regulatory fiscal aspect of international economic law, this article explores the potential role of the tax in moulding this economic opportunity in line with the commitments assumed by countries under the 2015 Paris Agreement. The issue is whether imposition of carbon tax or restructuring tax rates can have a significant impact in regulating carbon emissions by rationally pushing consumers, investors, and producers, towards an environmentally sound direction. To answer this, the article investigates three carbon-tax implementation case studies;British Columbia, South Africa, and the revision of European Union Energy Taxation Directive in the context of aviation, with the aim to explore the scope of contributing factors – from adequate tax rate determination to optimum tax revenue use – in successfully curbing carbon-based emissions. Drawing upon the policy-efforts of the countries in the case studies, the challenges and the solutions, the article proposes a suggestive policy model of carbon-tax in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic, as the way forward in ensuring global carbon-neutrality.

Identifying the factors impacting upon personal tax compliance: a study involving tax affairs officers of Malaysian businesses

It is assumed from the literature reviews in taxation that a tendency for tax non-compliance exists among the officers who deal with tax matters in their business establishments in Malaysia when they do not comply with their respective tax systems. The hitherto published studies have not yet explored the tax compliance behaviour of tax affairs officers. Given this gap in the literature, this study endeavours to investigate the factors that impact corporate tax affairs officers' personal tax compliance behaviour in Malaysia. Using purposive and snowball sampling techniques, the data was collected from 392 tax affairs officers of businesses in Malaysia. SmartPLS is used to analyse the data and test the hypotheses. The findings of this study reveal that peers' tax compliance, audit probability, service quality of tax authority, and satisfaction with government spending strongly impact upon personal tax compliance behaviour of corporate tax affairs officers. This study opens a gateway to producing extensive and expeditious empirical evidence that could support the relation between tax affairs officers' personal tax compliance and their decision-making on corporate tax compliance.

Türkiye'de Mali Alanın Siyasi Konjonktür Çerçevesinde Analizi (2000-2021)

Mali alan kavramı 2000'li yılların başından itibaren literatürde önemli bir yer edinmiştir. Önce gelişmekte olan ülkeler için bir kaynak yaratma aracı olarak görülen bu konu, 2008 krizi ve COVID-19 pandemisi ile birlikte hem gelişmekte olan hem de gelişmiş ülkeler için önem kazanmıştır. Makalede öncelikle mali alan kavramı ve kapsamı incelenmiş, mali alan yaratma yöntemleri açıklanmış, daha sonra ise mali alan literatürü taranmıştır. Çalışmada Heller yöntemi esas alınarak, Türkiye'de 2000-2021 yılları arasında vergi ve harcama politikalarındaki değişim incelenmiştir. Vergi politikası açısından bakıldığında, vergilerin ilgili dönemde dar bir koridorda seyrederek yüzde 24'lerde kaldığı;ayrıca dolaylı-dolaysız vergi kompozisyonunda değişiklik meydana geldiği görülmektedir. Harcama politikası açısından ise ilgili dönemin başında uygulanan istikrar politikaları sonucunda özellikle faiz harcamalarında meydana gelen azalmanın, sosyal yardım, sağlık ve eğitim harcamalarında önemli miktarda artışa imkân verdiği görülmektedir. Bu gelişmeler ile 20 yıl süresince hâkim parti olarak nitelendirilebilecek bir yönetimin, mali alanı nasıl yarattığı ve kullandığı üzerine siyasal konjonktür çerçevesinde bir değerlendirme yapılmıştır.Alternate :The concept of fiscal space has gained prominence in the literature since the early 2000s. Although it was originally perceived as a tool to create additional resources in only developing countries, the concept also became important in developed countries with the 2008 economic crisis and COVID-19 pandemic. This article reviews the literature on fiscal space, including various definitions and explains the efforts to create fiscal space in countries. The article analyzes revenue and expenditure policies of Türkiye by using the methodology of Peter Heller. In terms of revenue policy, tax revenues fluctuated around 24 percent. Between direct and indirect tax proceeds, there has been a swamp between direct and indirect taxes-direct tax revenues becoming less important. In terms of expenditure policy, the decline in interest payments due to the stabilization policies pursued by the government has created space to finance social service expenditures, such as education, healthcare, and social protection. Under the light of these developments, we analyze the fiscal space creation efforts of the government.

Stress Index of the Tax System of the Russian Federation in Terms of Tax Revenues

Economic systems are increasingly exposed to external shocks of various naturewhich test their resilience. The tax system, which is directly linked to the level of business activity, is one of the first to experience stress, so the ways it reacts to shock are of particular research interest. The 2020–2021 coronavirus pandemic made such studies more acute. The purpose of the paper is to develop and test new approaches in studying the resilience of the tax system in terms of tax revenues by analyzing the dynamics and structure of the tax system stress index in the Russian Federation in pre-pandemic, pandemic and recovery periods. The tax system stress index for tax revenues is calculated as the difference between the moving standard deviation and the moving average growth rate of tax revenues. We have developed a method for decomposing the stress index by source with determining the contribution of each tax to the average growth rate and to the standard deviation of the growth rate. We have also calculated the Russian Federation tax revenue stress index from December 2015 to March 2022 and identified its sources. It was found that the stress indices for almost all taxes (except for excises and state duties) are significantly positively correlated with each other. The main contribution to the growth of the stress index during the crisis and its decline within the recovery period is made by profit tax and a group of taxes on natural rent, which significantly negatively correlate with oil pricesUnder the pandemic crisis in Russia, the stress index on revenue form special tax regimes also increased significantly. It was found that the personal income tax has a stabilizing effect on the tax system stress index in the crisis and post-crisis periods. During the pandemic in Russia, the damping role of excises also came to the fore, which is explained by institutional factors and changes in tax rates. The research findings can be advantageous for the authorities to make an impact on the most vulnerable components of the tax system of the Russian Federation in order to increase its resilience to crises. © Malkina M.Yu., Balakin R.V., 2022.

Revenues of Russian Subfederal Budgets under the Pandemic: A Spatial Reversal

The object of research is subfederal budget revenues in Russia, i.e., the revenues going into the consolidated budgets of the federal subjects. The aim of the study is to analyze the impact of the pandemic on the subfederal budget revenues and to assess the contributions of various sources (taxes, non-tax revenues, transfers and their components) to their change. The data on moving annual revenues and their components with a 1-month shift are used to construct linear time regressions for 85 federal subjects of the Russian Federation and the city of Baikonur from 2015 to March 2020. The regressions are applied to forecast "non-pandemic” subfederal budget revenues during the period of the pandemic (April 2020 to June 2021). By decomposing the deviations of the actual revenues from the forecast ones, the contribution of various sources to the changes in the subfederal budget revenues amid COVID-19 is determined. It is shown that the oil-producing regions of Russia are most vulnerable to the pandemic. Meanwhile, an abnormally high growth in budget revenues is observed in some regions of the Far Eastern Federal District. Tax revenues have the strongest negative impact on the change in the subfederal budget revenues, with the greatest losses being attributed to profit tax and smaller losses being associated with corporate property tax and special tax regimes. Personal income tax partially compensates for these losses. The changes in the taxes on goods and services are extremely uneven. The behavior of non-tax budget revenues resembles that of taxes, with the greatest losses being attributed to proceeds from the use of state properties and from the sale of assets. Interbudgetary transfers compensate for both the shortfall in revenues and for the growing subfederal budget expenditures. Their distribution reveals three motives: mitigation of the pandemic's detrimental implications, control over interregional imbalances, and political preferences. The federal subjects of the North Caucasian Federal District and some other lagging regions of Russia receive the largest share of extra transfers. The composition of the transfers shows a substantial increase in the share of subsidies and of the so-called other interbudgetary transfers, which suggest a proactive participation of the state in the implementation of national projects and in the production of public goods. A decrease in the share of equalization grants implies a reduction in non-targeted aid allocated by uniform rules. This indicates the increased dirigisme function of the Russian state in the economy. The results we obtained can be applied both to control the budget revenues of regions and to regulate interbudgetary relations during crises.

Zwei Jahre im Krisenmodus — die kommunalen Finanzen bleiben trotzdem stabil

ZusammenfassungDie kommunalen Finanzen stehen seit Beginn der Coronakrise unter besonderer Beobachtung. Die deutsche Politik hat zurecht erkannt, dass bei der Bekämpfung der Krise eine handlungsfähige Kommunalpolitik zwingend notwendig ist. Tatsächlich haben die kommunalen Haushalte sowohl 2020 als auch 2021 mit Überschüssen abgeschlossen. Wie dieser Beitrag zeigt, sind die Gründe dafür sehr unterschiedlich. Die auskömmliche Finanzierung der Kommunen ist Garant für die effiziente Bewältigung der Krise vor Ort und die Rekordzahlen bei den kommunalen Investitionen sind der richtige Impuls in der Wirtschaftskrise.Alternate :Federal and state policies have massively supported the German municipalities during the coronavirus crisis. As a result, municipal budgets in Germany have had a small surplus in 2020 and in 2021. The precise reasons for these surpluses are quite different in both years. In 2020, the additional expenditure as well as the enormous decrease in municipal tax revenue could only be overcome by large spending policies at federal and state level. In 2021, in contrast, the municipalities were back to collecting significant taxes themselves and were mostly self-sustaining. Still, municipal finances in 2021 profited from permanent policy changes regarding the trade tax levy (Gewerbesteuerumlage) and the federal government’s increased co-funding of accommodation costs.

Direct Digital Services Taxes in Africa and the Canons of Taxation

The unprecedented expansion of the digital economy has increased the intricacy of mobilising tax revenues from both domestic and international transactions. Tax evasion and avoidance are perpetuated by the invisible nature of digital transactions. To minimise the untapped revenues, countries all over the world are mapping policy strategies on how to collect revenue from this sector. African countries are not an exception. They have constructed digital tax policies to levy both direct and indirect taxes on digital transactions. This paper focuses on direct digital service taxes (DSTs). Direct digital service taxes have been an issue of debate among governments, policy makers, academics, tax bodies, and development organisations. Disagreements coalesce around their structure, their adherence to the canons of taxation, opportunities, and challenges as well as consequences of implementing them. Through a literature review, this paper assesses the legislative structure and administration of digital service taxes in relation to the canons of taxation. The findings of the review were conflicting. While certain aspects, motives, and possible outcomes of the taxes upheld the principles of taxation, some of these were conflicting with the principles. This could possibly be linked to variations in the economic, political, and social contexts in African countries and between developed and developing countries. The study recommends that while digital service taxes are an irrefutable necessity to tap tax revenues from the digital economy, African countries should ensure that equity, neutrality, economy, and efficiency among other principles are considered and balanced with the fundamental roles of tax policy.

Digital Financial Inclusion, Digital Financial Services Tax and Financial Inclusion in the Fourth Industrial Revolution Era in Africa

The digital economy has risen dramatically in the global environment, and many developing countries, including African countries, have seen a spike in digital activity over recent years. The digital economy’s growth has resulted in an increase in digital financial services (DFS) in Africa and other developing regions. Since many African countries are under pressure to raise domestic revenue, taxing the digital economy has become a viable option. As a result, this study attempted to respond to the following questions: first, what is the link between DFS growth and digital inclusion in African countries? Second, what justifies the imposition of DFS taxes in Africa? Third, what are the potential consequences of DFS taxes in African countries? Using secondary data from the literature review and document analysis, a systematic technique for assessing or evaluating printed and electronic documents, and computer-based and internet-transmitted material, the study discovered that digital financial inclusion is driving financial inclusion on the African continent. The study also found that, despite several negative consequences associated with the growth of the digital economy, most African economic activities are informal and are being aided by various digital financial services. Therefore, it is equally crucial that when adopting digital finance taxes, care is taken to avoid excluding low-income earners from the financial sector and to take note of the usage, affordability, and distortive implications of taxation.

Our Workforce and COVID-19: How Remote Working Plays a Role: Quarterly Journal

Using a university as an example, students located in more rural areas may have issues with internet access or cannot afford to have an adequate computer system at home for participating in required class work (Camera 2020). [...]there is a cost implication for society. [...]of the approach taken, managers can acquire accurate information to make decisions on how to control costs and provide savings for the business or company and they can seek input from employees. Motivation Pre-COVID-19 research suggests remote working can increase an employee's job satisfaction, organizational commitment and help improve employee performance at their job tasks.

A Guaranteed Basic Income for Canadians: Off the Table or Within Reach?

Pilot projects in the past that have experimented with a Guaranteed Basic Income (GBI) in Manitoba and Ontario, and a recent study of the feasibility of a GBI in British Columbia, indicate that provinces are not in an ideal position to successfully implement an affordable and effective GBI. However, a GBI implemented by the federal government, financed by eliminating the GST credit and lowering personal tax exemptions, could be both effective and affordable. It could also do so without requiring the elimination of those provincial social assistance programs that are more deeply targeted toward people’s needs. By using its revenue powers, the federal government could create more fiscal capacity for the provinces to provide other cash and in-kind social supports, allowing for greater provincial benefit targeting. The federal government’s centrality in designing and implementing tax structures and collecting tax revenue make it singularly suitable for administering and delivering a GBI. Financing the GBI by eliminating the modest GST credit and lowering the current basic personal income tax exemption could provide a significant reduction in the rate, depth and intensity of poverty in Canada, without imposing an excessive tax burden on Canadians. If provinces use the GBI as a replacement for certain less-targeted provincial social assistance income transfers, the freed-up payments and reduced caseloads could also allow provinces to target more effectively those needs not addressed by the GBI. The recent COVID-19 pandemic exposed longstanding gaps in Canada’s income- support frameworks, with lower-income workers facing exceptional economic vulnerability. At the same time, the Canadian Emergency Response Benefit proved edifying in terms of how to best design a basic-income program. In addition, the federal government’s experiences with the poverty-reducing impacts of the Canada Child Benefit, the Old Age Supplement and the Guaranteed Income Supplement have moved Canada closer than ever to a workable GBI. While it comes with additional costs, those costs will be less burdensome than many GBI skeptics might believe. They must also be put into perspective, by comparing them against the costs of current and, in many cases ineffective income transfers and, just as importantly, against the human cost of leaving more Canadians living in poverty.

Financial security during a pandemic SARS-CoV-2 Coronovirus pandemic in Poland

The year 2020 was sure dominated by the pandemic caused by the new SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. Many effects of the COVID-19 pandemic appeared in the Polish economic reality, including those related to financial security. In connection with these changes, many important questions have arisen, among others: will the financial systems of Poland be stable during the evolving crisis situations, intensively changing social and economic conditions, and will the people participating in these systems be safe from a macro-and microeconomic perspective? In the face of the situation, are the safety net institutions prepared to fight the economic crisis? The aim of the article is to analyse and evaluate the Polish financial system during the pandemic. Efforts were made to indicate the impact of the negative consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on the country's financial security. The pandemic affects the country’s economy in two ways, it has stalled many manufacturing industries and there has been a gap in the supply of products to the domestic market. All sectors of the economy experience disruptions leading to a shortage of good and the resulting higher prices thereof. Limited economic activity also generates lower tax revenues. Because it is precisely when the government increases spending, it results in larger fiscal deficits and greater public debt. The article focuses on discussing the potential effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the stability of the financial system in Poland.

The Fiscal Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Subnational Governments: The Case of Russia

This paper examines the fiscal consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic for subnational governments. In particular, we study how the pandemic affected the Russian regions in terms of budget revenues, expenditures, and federal transfers. We use a novel dataset and compare various monthly fiscal measures in 2020 prior to and during the pandemic to the corresponding measures in 2019, conditioning on regional actions in response to the pandemic, the health impact of the pandemic, and the potentially relevant regional characteristics. We document that small business tax collections declined the most in response to the pandemic-related restrictions, while unconditional discretionary transfers and health care expenditures rose the most. Also, we find that tax collections are positively associated with population mobility, controlling for the restrictions, suggesting that tax revenues were inversely affected by the degree of compliance with the restrictions. Finally, we outline some policy implications for the design of fiscal federalism and directions for future research.

TAX SYSTEMS OF UKRAINE AND EU COUNTRIES DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC: CURRENT STATUS AND PROSPECTS

At the start of 2020, the world faced major challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic. International institutions, governments and various organizations are forced to apply unprecedented restrictive measures in many areas of activity. The answer to these challenges by the governments of almost all countries of the world is actively manifested in tax measures aimed at supporting citizens and businesses. The article was devoted to the study of the level of taxation for certain taxes in Ukraine and EU countries in a crisis. The study proves the relevance of determining the optimal level of taxes to fill the budget. This study uses the method of comparative analysis, which compares the levels of tax rates in Ukraine and some EU countries. The optimal level of tax revenues to the state budget has been determined. The level of tax revenues to the Consolidated Budget of Ukraine has been analyzed and the main directions for improving the tax system of Ukraine have been identified. The necessity of focusing on the experience of highly developed EU countries in the field of taxation with the obligatory consideration of national characteristics is proved.

The Year Without Tourism: Hawai'i's FY2022 Pandemic Budget

Hawai'i's economy was devastated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The effective closure of the tourism industry created an unemployment crisis and led to a dramatic decline in tax revenues. Nevertheless, Hawai'i managed to avoid mass layoffs of public employees and draconian cuts in public services because of federal relief funds. The $15.9 billion budget for FY2022 restored funding to most departments, but the state's dependence on the visitor industry has left it particularly vulnerable to future pandemic travel restrictions.

Tax compliance, public spending and happiness in Europe

Purpose>This study aims to analyze whether tax compliance is the basis for the short-run dynamics of the development of welfare and happiness. The strengthening of tax compliance of corporates and citizens is not only important to achieve the goals assumed by fiscal policy but also is part of the values that can generate a higher level of welfare and happiness in Europe.Design/methodology/approach>This study uses a dynamic factor model to offer new indexes that allow to monitor tax compliance, public spending and happiness trajectories and to evaluate their short-run relationships. Next, an analysis of the cyclical characteristics in terms of duration, amplitude and intensity is provided using the Harding and Pagan method (2002).Findings>The empirical findings show that the European countries were able to reinforce tax compliance during the expansionary periods of the economy, and this has made it possible to increase public spending, and indirectly, happiness. Otherwise, this paper shows that the contractions of public resources during the global crisis, such as the case in the COVID-19, reduced the possibilities of well-being in Europe and made it more difficult to increase public spending and happiness.Research limitations/implications>This study tries to analyze the transmission channels and relationships of three very complex variables: tax compliance, public spending and happiness. Incorporating these three variables into this research, with a short-run perspective, the authors have opened a new line of research that enriched the previous analysis. Therefore, the authors’ results should be considered the first step, that this study is going to continue to unravel the complexity of these relationships.Practical implications>The design of policies aimed at improving individual, corporate and the well-being of nations needs them to incorporate elements of tax compliance as an objective that has economic and social implications. Individuals and corporates contribute to a fairer and more equitable society through compliance with tax obligations.Originality/value>To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first paper that offers evidence on the short-run dynamics of tax revenue, public spending and happiness for a better understanding of their relationships and behavior during the different periods of the economy.

The Health System Infrastructure and Economic Effects of COVID-19 in OECD Countries, the Policy Responses of Nations and international Organizations against Pandemic

Background: COVID-19 became pandemic in a short time and has spread affectingthe countries negatively in economic, social and political life all over the world.Governments and international organizationsare taking protective measures to decrease the effect of the pandemic on total economy and households. Aim: This study aims to investigate the growth rates of confirmed cases and deaths related to COVID-19 and analyse the health system infrastructure and economic effects of COVID-19 in OECD countries, the policy responses of nations and international organizations against pandemic. Methods: The data for the COVID-19 confirmed cases and deaths was gathered from European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and was smoothed with Simple Moving Average process to remove trend and reduce volatility. The cumulative growth rates for COVID-19 confirmed cases and deaths were calculated by natural logarithmic values.In the study the health infrastructure and human resources and the impact of COVID-19 on the economy and foreign trade for the countries were also analysed. Results: In five months total confirmed cases and deaths exceeded five million and three hundred thousand respectively all over the world. Due to COVID-19 confirmed cases and deaths in some countries have increased rapidly due to insufficient health systems. Since the internal and external demand decreased and the supply chain was destructed the countries faced contracting GDP, foreign trade, tax revenues and employment where individuals had job and income loss. Conclusion: Rapidly spreading COVID-19 heavily affects human life and economies in countries. Governments and international organizations are taking protective measures and responses against the pandemic quickly. Staying at home, keeping social distance and taking lockdown decisions for settlements will change attitudes and behaviours. Pandemic will be destructive for some countries where it will be an opportunity for others who have strong infrastructure for health systems, medical products, food and online sales.

Vat Revenues In 2008–2020: Trends And Challenges Of Covid-19

Motivation: VAT revenues are particularly vulnerable to economic turbulence, especially if the crisis directly affects private consumption or changes its structure. Even when consumption levels are relatively high, VAT revenues may be lower due to a shift in consumer spending to the most essential goods or services or an increase in public sector consumption. Because of the reduction in operation and the closure of many businesses, the Covid-19 crisis is likely to have an even greater impact on consumption than the previous financial crisis of 2008. Aim: The purpose of this article is to analyse VAT revenues in OECD countries over the period 2008–2020, identify general trends, and highlight similarities and differences in this regard between the 2008 financial crisis and the Covid-19 crisis. Results: Consumption taxes account for about 33% of all taxes collected in OECD countries, of which 20% is VAT. Covid-19 could change that in an important manner. After the 2008 global financial crisis, tax revenues, including VAT, returned to pre-crisis levels after an average of eight years. VAT revenues in relation to GDP peaked in 2016, and have been stable since then. Due to reduced operation and closure of businesses, the Covid-19 epidemic not only changed the structure of private consumption, but also significantly affected its level. In addition, government actions reducing certain rates have contributed to the decline in VAT revenues. As the survey results indicate, standard VAT rates between 2017 and 2020 were at record high levels, averaging 19.3%. With such high rates, in order to re-store VAT revenues after the crisis, governments may have to think about how to broaden the tax base (e.g., temporarily lower rates and stimulate consumption).

Policy Forum: Editors' Introduction—Cross-Border Issues in Carbon Pricing

Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, Canada is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 40 to 45 percent from 2005 levels by 2030.1 As of 2019, a full 4 years after the agreement was signed, Canada had achieved emission reductions of only 1 percent. [...]meeting our Paris commitments will require a 39 to 44 percent reduction in GHG emissions in just 11 years.2 To put into perspective the structural economic change required by a 39 to 44 percent cut in emissions, the changes that took place in 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic-working from home, eliminating most business and personal air travel, and so on-reduced Canada's carbon (CO2) emissions by 8 percent from 2019 levels.3 Meeting the Paris commitments would require Canadians to not only preserve 2020-level emissions, but also achieve three or four times that level of reductions by the end of the following decade. [...]the need for equalization is also reduced. Yet, because of the equalization program's "fixed-growth rule," the size of the program would not decline, even with a diminished need for equalization. [...]Snoddon concludes, "Overequalization often results, with Quebec and sometimes Ontario as the main beneficiaries. Christians suggests that to the extent that economists can estimate the amount of externalized environmental costs with increasing detail and precision, the income tax base could be legislatively reformed to deem such externalized costs to constitute additional taxable income to all of the relevant parties throughout the fossil fuel production and consumption cycle.16 Christians acknowledges that there are practical difficulties in estimating the environmental costs created by individual firms, especially given Canada's selfassessment-based income tax system.

After the pandemic – an opening for tax reforms post-covid taxation challenges across Africa

One of the most efficient ways of promoting long-term inclusive development is to ensure domestic financing through a stable, broad-based and fair tax system. At the present moment, as policy makers across the world are preparing post-pandemic policies, there is an opportunity to open the way to tax reform and to boost inclusive development in many African countries – provided the correct measures are chosen.

Fiscal policy and tax evasion in the context of COVID-19 pandemic

The aim of this research study is to provide a comprehensive theoretical analysis on the phenomenon of tax evasion, but also fiscal policy measures in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. Fiscal policy highlights the path of government authorities on economic activity based on public revenues and expenditures. The phenomenon of tax evasion significantly affects the prospect of sustainable economic growth. In order to ensure economic stability, it is very important for government authorities to apply rigorous measures to prevent and combat tax evasion.