Endothelial inflammation and dysfunction in COVID-19.

ABSTRACT

The biggest challenge in the COVID-19 pandemic besides the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is to reduce mortality rates. As the number of cases continues to rise and new variants, some with at least partial resistance to vaccines, emerge, the need for better understanding of the underlying pathology of the disease and for improved therapeutic strategies grows urgently. The endothelium is a main target of most viral infections in the body. The dysregulation of the normal functions of endothelial cells (ECs) contributes greatly to the thrombo-inflammatory storm and subsequent blood clot associated deaths in COVID-19 patients. Therefore, in this review we emphasize on the importance of ECs in healthy resting state and in inflammation. We summarize the current understanding of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenicity and the key contributions of in vitro cell culture models some of which have established the ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) receptors as the main gates for viral entry in the cell. Lastly, we focus on 3D biofabrication methods for the design of better in vitro models that mimic the host environment including interactions of multiple cell types, simulation of blood flow and real-time viral infections. The development and implementation of such experimental platforms are critical to elucidate host-pathogen interactions and to test new antiviral drugs and vaccines in a controlled, safe, and highly reproducible and predictive manner.