Kefir Grains Change Fatty Acid Profile of Milk during Fermentation and Storage.

Several studies have reported that lactic acid bacteria may increase the production of free fatty acids by lipolysis of milk fat, though no studies have been found in the literature showing the effect of kefir grains on the composition of fatty acids in milk. In this study the influence of kefir grains from different origins [Rio de Janeiro (AR), Viçosa (AV) e Lavras (AD)], different time of storage, and different fat content on the fatty acid content of cow milk after fermentation was investigated. Fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography. Values were considered significantly different when p<0.05. The highest palmitic acid content, which is antimutagenic compost, was seen in AV grain (36.6g/100g fatty acids), which may have contributed to increasing the antimutagenic potential in fermented milk. Higher monounsaturated fatty acid (25.8 g/100g fatty acids) and lower saturated fatty acid (72.7 g/100g fatty acids) contents were observed in AV, when compared to other grains, due to higher Δ9-desaturase activity (0.31) that improves the nutritional quality of lipids. Higher oleic acid (25.0 g/100g fatty acids) and monounsaturated fatty acid (28.2g/100g fatty acids) and lower saturated fatty acid (67.2g/100g fatty acids) contents were found in stored kefir relatively to fermented kefir leading to possible increase of antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic potential and improvement of nutritional quality of lipids in storage milk. Only high-lipidic matrix displayed increase polyunsaturated fatty acids after fermentation. These findings open up new areas of study related to optimizing desaturase activity during fermentation in order to obtaining a fermented product with higher nutritional lipid quality.

P2Y1 receptor-mediated potentiation of inspiratory motor output in neonatal rat in vitro.

PreBötzinger complex inspiratory rhythm-generating networks are excited by metabotropic purinergic receptor subtype 1 (P2Y1R) activation. Despite this, and the fact that inspiratory MNs express P2Y1Rs, the role of P2Y1Rs in modulating motor output is not known for any MN pool. We used rhythmically active brainstem-spinal cord and medullary slice preparations from neonatal rats to investigate the effects of P2Y1R signalling on inspiratory output of phrenic and XII MNs that innervate diaphragm and airway muscles, respectively. MRS2365 (P2Y1R agonist, 0.1 mm) potentiated XII inspiratory burst amplitude by 60 ± 9%; 10-fold higher concentrations potentiated C4 burst amplitude by 25 ± 7%. In whole-cell voltage-clamped XII MNs, MRS2365 evoked small inward currents and potentiated spontaneous EPSCs and inspiratory synaptic currents, but these effects were absent in TTX at resting membrane potential. Voltage ramps revealed a persistent inward current (PIC) that was attenuated by: flufenamic acid (FFA), a blocker of the Ca(2+)-dependent non-selective cation current ICAN; high intracellular concentrations of BAPTA, which buffers Ca(2+) increases necessary for activation of ICAN; and 9-phenanthrol, a selective blocker of TRPM4 channels (candidate for ICAN). Real-time PCR analysis of mRNA extracted from XII punches and laser-microdissected XII MNs revealed the transcript for TRPM4. MRS2365 potentiated the PIC and this potentiation was blocked by FFA, which also blocked the MRS2365 potentiation of glutamate currents. These data suggest that XII MNs are more sensitive to P2Y1R modulation than phrenic MNs and that the P2Y1R potentiation of inspiratory output occurs in part via potentiation of TRPM4-mediated ICAN, which amplifies inspiratory inputs.

Microbiological and chemical characteristics of Brazilian kefir during fermentation and storage processes.

The microbial community composition and chemical characteristics of a Brazilian milk kefir sample produced during its manufacturing and refrigerated storage were investigated by culture-dependent and -independent methods and HPLC. Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris and ssp. lactis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Acetobacter lovaniensis, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were isolated, whereas the detected bands on denaturing gel gradient electrophoresis corresponded to Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens, Lactobacillus kefiri, Lactobacillus parakefiri, and S. cerevisiae. After fermentation, lactic acid bacteria were present at levels of 10 log units, whereas acetic acid bacteria and yeast were present at levels of 7.8 and 6 log units, respectively. The lactic acid bacteria and yeast counts remained constant, whereas acetic acid bacteria counts decreased to 7.2 log units during storage. From fermentation to final storage, the pH, lactose content and citric acid of the kefir beverage decreased, followed by an increase in the concentrations of glucose, galactose, ethanol, and lactic, acetic, butyric, and propionic acids. These microbiological and chemical characteristics contribute to the unique taste and aroma of kefir. This research may serve as a basis for the future industrial production of this beverage in Brazil.

Distinct receptors underlie glutamatergic signalling in inspiratory rhythm-generating networks and motor output pathways in neonatal rat.

Despite the enormous diversity of glutamate (Glu) receptors and advances in understanding recombinant receptors, native Glu receptors underlying functionally identified inputs in active systems are poorly defined in comparison. In the present study we use UBP-302, which antagonizes GluR5 subunit-containing kainate (KA) receptors at < or = 10 microm, but other KA and AMPA receptors at > or = 100 microm, and rhythmically active in vitro preparations of neonatal rat to explore the contribution of non-NMDA receptor signalling in rhythm-generating and motor output compartments of the inspiratory network. At 10 microm, UBP-302 had no effect on inspiratory burst frequency or amplitude. At 100 microm, burst amplitude recorded from XII, C1 and C4 nerve roots was significantly reduced, but frequency was unaffected. The lack of a frequency effect was confirmed when local application of UBP-302 (100 microm) into the pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) did not affect frequency but substance P evoked a 2-fold increase. A UBP-302-sensitive (10 microm), ATPA-evoked frequency increase, however, established that preBötC networks are sensitive to GluR5 activation. Whole-cell recordings demonstrated that XII motoneurons also express functional GluR5-containing KA receptors that do not contribute to inspiratory drive, and confirmed the dose dependence of UBP-302 actions on KA and AMPA receptors. Our data provide the first evidence that the non-NMDA (most probably AMPA) receptors mediating glutamatergic transmission within preBötC inspiratory rhythm-generating networks are pharmacologically distinct from those transmitting drive to inspiratory motoneurons. This differential expression may ultimately be exploited pharmacologically to separately counteract depression of central respiratory rhythmogenesis or manipulate the drive to motoneurons controlling airway and pump musculature.