Effects of Hypoxia on the Antibacterial Activity of Epidermal Mucus from Chilean Meagre (Cilus gilberti).

Comprehending the immune defense mechanisms of new aquaculture species, such as the Chilean meagre (Cilus gilberti), is essential for sustaining large-scale production. Two bioassays were conducted to assess the impact of acute and intermittent hypoxia on the antibacterial activity of juvenile Chilean meagre epidermal mucus against the potential pathogens Vibrio anguillarum and Vibrio ordalii. Lysozyme and peroxidase activities were also measured. In general, fish exposed to hypoxia showed a 9-30% reduction in mucus antibacterial activity at the end of hypoxic periods and after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. However, following water reoxygenation, the activity of non-stimulated fish was comparable to that of fish in normoxic conditions, inhibiting bacterial growth by 35-52%. In the case of fish exposed to chronic hypoxia, the response against V. anguillarum increased by an additional 19.8% after 6 days of control inoculation. Lysozyme exhibited a similar pattern, while no modulation of peroxidase activity was detected post-hypoxia. These results highlight the resilience of C. gilberti to dissolved oxygen fluctuations and contribute to understanding the potential of mucus in maintaining the health of cultured fish and the development of future control strategies.

Evaluation of the Biological Activities of Peptides from Epidermal Mucus of Marine Fish Species from Chilean Aquaculture.

The skin of fish is a physicochemical barrier that is characterized by being formed by cells that secrete molecules responsible for the first defense against pathogenic organisms. In this study, the biological activity of peptides from mucus of Seriola lalandi and Seriolella violacea were identified and characterized. To this purpose, peptide extraction was carried out from epidermal mucus samples of juveniles of both species, using chromatographic strategies for purification. Then, the peptide extracts were characterized to obtain the amino acid sequence by mass spectrometry. Using bioinformatics tools for predicting antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, 12 peptides were selected that were chemically produced by simultaneous synthesis using the Fmoc-Tbu strategy. The results revealed that the synthetic peptides presented a random coil or extended secondary structure. The analysis of antimicrobial activity allowed it to be discriminated that four peptides, named by their synthesis code 5065, 5069, 5070, and 5076, had the ability to inhibit the growth of Vibrio anguillarum and affected the copepodite stage of C. rogercresseyi. On the other hand, peptides 5066, 5067, 5070, and 5077 had the highest antioxidant capacity. Finally, peptides 5067, 5069, 5070, and 5076 were the most effective for inducing respiratory burst in fish leukocytes. The analysis of association between composition and biological function revealed that the antimicrobial activity depended on the presence of basic and aromatic amino acids, while the presence of cysteine residues increased the antioxidant activity of the peptides. Additionally, it was observed that those peptides that presented the highest antimicrobial capacity were those that also stimulated respiratory burst in leukocytes. This is the first work that demonstrates the presence of functional peptides in the epidermal mucus of Chilean marine fish, which provide different biological properties when the fish face opportunistic pathogens.

First Insights about Antiparasitic and Action Mechanisms of the Antimicrobial Peptide Hepcidin from Salmonids against Caligus rogercresseyi.

Currently, one of the primary challenges in salmon farming is caligidosis, caused by the copepod ectoparasites Caligus spp. The infection process is determined by the copepod's ability to adhere to the fish skin through the insertion of its chitin-composed filament. In this study, we examined several antimicrobial peptides previously identified in salmonid mucosal secretions, with a primary focus on their potential to bind to chitin as an initial step. The binding capacity to chitin was tested, with hepcidin and piscidin showing positive results. Further assessments involving cytotoxicity in salmonid cells RTgill-W1, SHK-1, RTS-11, and RT-gut indicated that the peptides did not adversely affect cell viability. However, hemolysis assays unveiled the hemolytic capacity of piscidin at lower concentrations, leading to the selection of hepcidin for antiparasitic assays. The results demonstrated that the nauplius II stage of C. rogercresseyi exhibited higher susceptibility to hepcidin treatments, achieving a 50% reduction in parasitic involvement at 50 µM. Utilizing fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy, we observed the localization of hepcidin on the surface of the parasite, inducing significant spherical protuberances along the exoskeleton of C. rogercresseyi. These findings suggest that cysteine-rich AMPs derived from fish mucosa possess the capability to alter the development of the chitin exoskeleton in copepod ectoparasites, making them therapeutic targets to combat recurrent parasitic diseases in salmon farming.

Stability of ACE2 Peptide Mimetics and Their Implications on the Application for SARS-CoV2 Detection.

The SARS-CoV-2 worldwide outbreak prompted the development of several tools to detect and treat the disease. Among the new detection proposals, the use of peptides mimetics has surged as an alternative to avoid the use of antibodies, of which there has been a shortage during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the use of peptides in detection systems still presents some questions to be answered, mainly referring to their stability under different environmental conditions. In this work, we synthesized an ACE2 peptide mimic and evaluated its stability in different pH, salinity, polarity, and temperature conditions. Further, the same conditions were assessed when using the ability of the peptide mimic to detect the recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in a biotin-streptavidin-enzyme-linked assay. Finally, we also tested the capacity of the peptide to detect SARS-CoV-2 from patients' samples. The results indicate that the peptide is structurally sensitive to the medium conditions, with relevance to the pH, where basic pH favored its performance when used as a SARS-CoV-2 detector. Further, the proposed peptide mimic was able to detect SARS-CoV-2 comparably to RT-qPCR results. Therefore, the present study promotes knowledge advancement, particularly in terms of stability considerations, in the application of peptide mimics as a replacement for antibodies in detection systems.

Evidence of the Autophagic Process during the Fish Immune Response of Skeletal Muscle Cells against Piscirickettsia salmonis.

Autophagy is a fundamental cellular process implicated in the health of the cell, acting as a cytoplasmatic quality control machinery by self-eating unfunctional organelles and protein aggregates. In mammals, autophagy can participate in the clearance of intracellular pathogens from the cell, and the activity of the toll-like receptors mediates its activation. However, in fish, the modulation of autophagy by these receptors in the muscle is unknown. This study describes and characterizes autophagic modulation during the immune response of fish muscle cells after a challenge with intracellular pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis. For this, primary cultures of muscle cells were challenged with P. salmonis, and the expressions of immune markers il-1ß, tnfα, il-8, hepcidin, tlr3, tlr9, mhc-I and mhc-II were analyzed through RT-qPCR. The expressions of several genes involved in autophagy (becn1, atg9, atg5, atg12, lc3, gabarap and atg4) were also evaluated with RT-qPCR to understand the autophagic modulation during an immune response. In addition, LC3-II protein content was measured via Western blot. The challenge of trout muscle cells with P. salmonis triggered a concomitant immune response to the activation of the autophagic process, suggesting a close relationship between these two processes.

Effect of Fish Stock Density on Hormone Genes Expression from Brain and Gastrointestinal Tract of Salmo salar.

A variety of long-term stress conditions may exist in fish cultivation, some of which are so severe that fish can no longer reestablish homeostasis. In teleost fish, the brain and gastrointestinal tract integrate signals that include the perception of stress factors regulating physiological responses, such as social stress by fish population density, where peripheral and central signals, such as peptide hormones, are the main regulators. Therefore, we proposed in this study to analyze the effect of different stock densities (SD) in the gene expression of brain neuropeptide Y (NPY) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), together with the gastrointestinal peptide hormones leptin (Lep), vasointestinal peptide (VIP), and protachykinin-1 (Prk-1) in Salmo salar post-smolt. The coding sequence of S. salar VIP and Prk-1 precursors were firstly cloned and characterized. Then, the mRNA expression of these genes, together with the NPY, Lep, and CGRP genes, were evaluated in post-smolts kept at 11 Kg/m3, 20 Kg/m3, and 40 Kg/m3. At 14 days of culture, the brain CGRP and liver leptin mRNA levels increased three and tenfold in the post-smolt salmons kept at the highest SD, respectively. The high levels of leptin were kept during all the fish culture experiments. In addition, the highest expression of intestine VIP mRNA was obtained on Day 21 in the group of 40 Kg/m3 returning to baseline on Day 40. In terms of stress biochemical parameters, cortisol levels were increased in the 20 Kg/m3 and 40 Kg/m3 groups on Day 40 and were the highest in the 20 Kg/m3 group on Day 14. This study provides new insight into the gastrointestinal signals that could be affected by chronic stress induced by high stock density in fish farming. Thus, the expression of these peptide hormones could be used as molecular markers to improve production practices in fish aquaculture.

New insight to the rol of α-enolase (Eno-1) as immunological marker in rainbow trout fry.

α-Enolase is an enzyme of the glycolytic pathway that has also been involved in vertebrate inflammatory processes through its interaction with plasminogen. However, its participation in the immune response of lower vertebrates during early life development is unknown. Opportunistic pathogens in salmon farming are the principal cause of mortality in the fry stage. For that reason, molecular indicators of their immunological status are required to ensure the success of the large-scale cultivation. Thus, the objective of this work was to analyze if ENO-1 is involved in the immune response of rainbow trout fry. For this purpose, the coding sequence of trout ENO-1 was characterized, identifying the plasminogen-binding domain that has been described for homologs of this enzyme in higher vertebrates. A peptide-epitope of α-enolase was used for producing mice antiserum. The specificity of polyclonal antibodies was confirmed by dot blot, ELISA and Western blot. Then, the antiserum was used to evaluate α-enolase expression in fry between 152 and 264 degree-days post-hatching after 2, 8, and 12 h of challenge with lipopolysaccharide from Pseudomona auroginosa. The expression of α-enolase at both transcriptional (RT-qPCR) and protein (ELISA) levels was significantly increased after 8 h post-challenge with lipopolysaccharide. These results were confirmed by proteomic analysis by 2D-difference gel electrophoresis (DIGE). This work provides the first evidence of the involvement of α-enolase in the early immune response of salmonids. Future research will be required to understand the possible interaction of α-enolase with plasminogen in cells and tissues of the salmonid immune system.

Randomized Controlled Trial of Nonsynchronized Nasal Intermittent Positive Pressure Ventilation versus Nasal CPAP after Extubation of VLBW Infants.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) is a useful method of respiratory support after extubation. However, some infants fail despite CPAP use and require reintubation. Some evidence suggests that synchronized nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) may decrease extubation failure in preterm infants. Nonsynchronized NIPPV (NS-NIPPV) is being widely used in preterm infants without conclusive evidence of its benefits and side effects. Our aim was to evaluate whether NS-NIPPV decreases extubation failure compared with NCPAP in ventilated very low birth weight infants (VLBWI) with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). METHODS: Randomized controlled trial of ventilated VLBWI being extubated for the first time. Before extubation, infants were randomized to receive NCPAP or NS-NIPPV. Primary outcome was the need for reintubation within 72 h. RESULTS: 220 infants were included. The mean ± SD birth weight was 1,027 ± 256 g and gestational age 27.8 ± 1.9 weeks. Demographic and clinical characteristics were similar in both groups. Extubation failure was 32.4% for NCPAP versus 32.1% for NS-NIPPV, p = 0.98. The frequency of deaths, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, intraventricular hemorrhage, air leaks, necrotizing enterocolitis and duration of respiratory support did not differ between groups. CONCLUSIONS: In this population of VLBWI, NS-NIPPV did not decrease extubation failure after RDS compared with NCPAP.

Novel antioxidant peptides obtained by alcalase hydrolysis of Erythrina edulis (pajuro) protein.

BACKGROUND: Oxidative reactions are responsible for the changes in quality during food processing and storage. Oxidative stress is also involved in multiple chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, cancer, and aging. The consumption of dietary antioxidants has been demonstrated to help to reduce the oxidative damage in both the human body and food systems. In this study, the potential of Erythrina edulis (pajuro) protein as source of antioxidant peptides was evaluated. RESULTS: Pajuro protein concentrate hydrolyzed by alcalase for 120 min showed potent ABTS·+ and peroxyl radical scavenging activity with Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values of 1.37 ± 0.09 µmol TE mg-1 peptide and 2.83 ± 0.07 µmol TE mg-1 peptide, respectively. Fractionation of the hydrolyzate to small peptides resulted in increased antioxidant activity. De novo sequencing of most active fractions collected by chromatographic analysis enabled 30 novel peptides to be identified. Of these, ten were synthesized and their radical activity evaluated, demonstrating their relevant contribution to the antioxidant effects observed for pajuro protein hydrolyzate. CONCLUSIONS: The sequences identified represent an important advance in the molecular characterization of the pajuro protein, demonstrating its potential as a source of antioxidant peptides for food and nutraceutical applications. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chemical Synthesis and Functional Analysis of VarvA Cyclotide.

Cyclotides are circular peptides found in various plant families. A cyclized backbone, together with multiple disulfide bonds, confers the peptides' exceptional stability against protease digestion and thermal denaturation. In addition, the features of these antimicrobial molecules make them suitable for use in animal farming, such as aquaculture. Fmoc solid phase peptide synthesis on 2-chlorotrityl chlorine (CTC) resin using the "tea-bag" approach was conducted to generate the VarvA cyclotide identified previously from Viola arvensis. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry determined the correct peptide amino acid sequence and the cyclization sites-critical in this multicyclic compound. The cyclotide showed antimicrobial activity against various Gram-negative bacteria, including recurrent pathogens present in Chilean aquaculture. The highest antimicrobial activity was found to be against Flavobacterium psychrophilum. In addition, membrane blebbing on the bacterial surface after exposure to the cyclotide was visualized by SEM microscopy and the Sytox Green permeabilization assay showed the ability to disrupt the bacterial membrane. We postulate that this compound can be proposed for the control of fish farming infections.

Alpha-helical domain from IL-8 of salmonids: Mechanism of action and identification of a novel antimicrobial function.

In this work, the potential antimicrobial role and mechanism of action of α-helix domain of trout and salmon IL-8 against Eschericia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus was investigated. By an in silico analysis of the primary structure of IL-8 from Oncorhynchus mykiss and salmo salar, it was evidenced that γ-core motif was present, as in the vast majority of kinocidins. The α-helix domain of IL-8 (αIL-8) was synthesized by solid phase peptide synthesis and showed a tendency to form an α-helix conformation, as revealed by circular dichroism. Additionally, it was demonstrated that αIL-8 from both species showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. Membrane permeabilization and co-localization assay, as well as scanning electron microscopy, showed that these peptides were accumulated on the cell surface and in the cytoplasm, suggesting that they were capable of permeabilizing and disrupt the bacterial membranes and interact with cytoplasmic components. Our results represent the first analysis on the antimicrobial function of IL-8-derived peptide from salmonids.

Insights into the diversity of NOD-like receptors: Identification and expression analysis of NLRC3, NLRC5 and NLRX1 in rainbow trout.

Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) are efficient soluble intracellular sensors that activate defense mechanisms against pathogens. In teleost fish, the involvement of NLRs in the immune response is not well understood. However, recent work has evidenced the expression of different NLRs in response to some pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). In the present work, the cDNA sequence encoding three new NOD-like receptors were identified in Oncorhynchus mykiss, namely OmNLRC3, OmNLRC5 and OmNLRX1. Results showed that their sequences coded for proteins of 1135, 836 and 1010 amino acids, respectively. The deduced protein sequences of all receptors showed characteristic domains of this receptor family, such as leucine rich repeats and NACHT domain. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a high degree of identity with other NOD-like receptors and they are clustered into different families. Transcript expression analysis indicated that OmNLRs are constitutively expressed in liver, spleen, intestine, gill, skin and brain. OmNLR expression was upregulated in kidney and gills from rainbow trout in response to LPS. In order to give new insights into the function of these new NLR members, an in vitro model of immune stimulation was established using the rainbow trout cell line RTgill-W1. Expression analysis revealed that RTgill-W1 overexpressed proinflammatory cytokines in response to LPS and poly I:C alongside with a differential overexpression of OmNLRC3, OmNLRC5 and OmNLRX1. The expression of OmNLRC5 was further verified at the protein level by immunofluorescence. Finally, the effect of the overexpressed cytokines on the OmNLR expression by RTgill-W1 cells was assessed, suggesting a regulatory mechanism on OmNLRC3 expression. Overall, results suggest that O. mykiss NOD-like receptors could play a key role in the defense mechanisms of teleost through PAMP recognition. Future studies will focus on gills which could be related with a key sensor mucosal system in one of the most environmentally fish exposed tissues.

Piscirickettsia salmonis Imbalances the Innate Immune Response to Succeed in a Productive Infection in a Salmonid Cell Line Model.

Piscirickettsia salmonis is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes the disease called "salmon rickettsial syndrome". Attempts to control this disease have been unsuccessful, because existing vaccines have not achieved the expected effectiveness and the antibiotics used fail to completely eradicate the pathogen. This is in part the product of lack of scientific information that still lacks on the mechanisms used by this bacterium to overcome infected-cell responses and survive to induce a productive infection in macrophages. For that, this work was focused in determining if P. salmonis is able to modify the expression and the imbalance of IL-12 and IL-10 using an in vitro model. Additionally, we also evaluated the role the antimicrobial peptide hepcidin had in the control of this pathogen in infected cells. Therefore, the expression of IL-10 and IL-12 was evaluated at earlier stages of infection in the RTS11 cell line derived from Oncorhynchus mykiss macrophages. Simultaneously, the hepcidin expression and location was analyzed in the macrophages infected with the pathogen. Our results suggest that IL-10 is clearly induced at early stages of infection with values peaking at 36 hours post infection. Furthermore, infective P. salmonis downregulates the expression of antimicrobial peptide hepcidin and vesicles containing this peptide were unable to merge with the infective bacteria. Our results suggest that P. salmonis is able to manipulate the behavior of host cytokines and likely might constitute a virulence mechanism that promotes intracellular bacterial replication in leukocytes cells lines of trout and salmon. This mechanism involves the generation of an optimum environment for the microorganism and the downregulation of antimicrobial effectors like hepcidin.

Genome Sequence of Citrobacter sp. CtB7.12, Isolated from the Gut of the Desert Subterranean Termite Heterotermes aureus.

The draft genome of Citrobacter sp. CtB7.12, isolated from termite gut, is presented here. This organism has been reported as a cellulolytic bacterium, which is biotechnologically important because it can be used as a gene donor for the ethanol and biofuel industries.

Antimicrobial activity of trout hepcidin.

Hepcidin is an antimicrobial peptide and a hormone produced mostly the liver. It is a cysteine-rich peptide with a highly conserved ß-sheet structure. Recently, we described the hepcidin expression in liver of rainbow trout and its inducibility by iron overloading and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Thus, in this work, we focused in analyzing the importance of the peptide conformation associated to its oxidative state in the antimicrobial activity. This peptide showed a α-helix conformation in reduced state and the characteristic ß-sheet conformation in the oxidized state. Antimicrobial activity assays showed that the oxidized peptide is more effective than the reduced peptide against Escherichia coli and the important salmon fish pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis. In addition, confocal analysis of P. salmonis culture exposed to trout hepcidin coupled with rhodamine revealed the intracellular location of this peptide and Sytox permeation assay showed that membrane disruption is not the mechanism of its antimicrobial action. Moreover, a conserved ATCUN motif was detected in the N-terminus of this peptide. This sequence has been described as a small metal-binding site that has been implicated in DNA cleavage. In this work we proved that this peptide is able to induce DNA hydrolysis in the presence of ascorbate and CuCl2. When the same experiments were carried out using a variant with truncated N-terminus no DNA hydrolysis was observed. Our results suggest that correct folding of hepcidin is required for its antimicrobial activity and most likely the metal-binding site (ATCUN motif) present in its N-terminus is involved in the oxidative damage to macromolecules.

Development of a sandwich ELISA for quantifying hepcidin in Rainbow trout.

One of the most widespread antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in fish is the hepcidins, which have potent, broad-spectrum activity against viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Moreover, they play the role of central regulation of iron metabolism and their expression is over-regulated by bacterial and viral infections, inflammation and vaccination. Quantification of their expression is an important factor in understanding their function. We therefore generated two polyclonal antibodies using synthetic peptides in order to measure hepcidin expression via sandwich ELISA. The specificity of both antibodies was confirmed by identifying an absence of cross-reactivity with other peptides that have similar pI and with the detection by Western blot of only one 9.6 kDa immunoreactive band corresponding to the hepcidin prepropeptide. The sensitivity of the sandwich ELISA was in the order of 0.005 ng/µL of hepcidin, which allowed analysis of the presence of the peptide and its variation in different tissues of Oncorhynchus mykiss. With the sandwich ELISA it could be seen that hepcidin expression in rainbow trout challenged with Aeromonas salmonicida was increased twofold over the untreated fish in head kidney samples, in correlation with the increase in the observed transcriptional level in the head kidney cells. These results provide the first evidence for quantifying the presence of active hepcidin and may be a useful indicator of disease susceptibility, providing a new, sensitive tool for rapid screening of population health.

Detection of the hepcidin prepropeptide and mature peptide in liver of rainbow trout.

Hepcidin is a small, cationic peptide which displays antimicrobial activities and iron regulatory function. Originally identified in mammals, this peptide is also present in fish. Hepcidin mRNA is predominantly expressed in liver and is regulated by iron and pathogen infection. In this work, we characterized the expression of trout hepcidin at protein level using rabbit antisera. Results showed that the prepropeptide of hepcidin can be detected by Western Blot in liver tissue from trout injected with iron or lipopolysaccharide. The mature hepcidin peptide was detected at the ionized state 5+(m/z 577.2) by HPLC-ESI-MS in acid extracts from liver tissue. Moreover, hepcidin peptide was located in trout liver imprints by immunofluorescence. These results showed that hepcidin peptide is up-regulated by iron and bacterial components in the trout liver. This up-regulation could be a potential indicator of disease susceptibility, suggesting that hepcidin regulates iron homeostasis in salmonids.