Pharmaceutical residues in the ecosystem: Antibiotic resistance, health impacts, and removal techniques.

Hospital wastewater has emerged as a major category of environmental pollutants over the past two decades, but its prevalence in freshwater is less well documented than other types of contaminants. Due to compound complexity and improper operations, conventional treatment is unable to remove pharmaceuticals from hospital wastewater. Advanced treatment technologies may eliminate pharmaceuticals, but there are still concerns about cost and energy use. There should be a legal and regulatory framework in place to control the flow of hospital wastewater. Here, we review the latest scientific knowledge regarding effective pharmaceutical cleanup strategies and treatment procedures to achieve that goal. Successful treatment techniques are also highlighted, such as pre-treatment or on-site facilities that control hospital wastewater where it is used in hospitals. Due to the prioritization, the regulatory agencies will be able to assess and monitor the concentration of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater, surface water, and drinking water. Based on the data obtained, the conventional WWTPs remove 10-60% of pharmaceutical residues. However, most PhACs are eliminated during the secondary or advanced therapy stages, and an overall elimination rate higher than 90% can be achieved. This review also highlights and compares the suitability of currently used treatment technologies and identifies the merits and demerits of each technology to upgrade the system to tackle future challenges. For this reason, pharmaceutical compound rankings in regulatory agencies should be the subject of prospective studies.

Determination and risk assessment of pharmaceutical residues in the urban water cycle in Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.

The environmental fate of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the urban water cycle is still uncertain and their status is mainly assessed based on specific water components and information on human risk assessments. This study (a) explores the environmental fate of NSAIDs (ibuprofen, IBU; naproxen, NAP; ketoprofen, KET; diazepam, DIA; and diclofenac, DIC) in the urban water cycle, including wastewater, river, and treated water via gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (GCMS), (b) assesses the efficiency of reducing the targeted NSAIDs in sewage treatment plant (STP) using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and (c) evaluates the ecological risk assessment of these drugs in the urban water cycle via teratogenic index (TI) and risk quotient (RQ). The primary receptor of contaminants comes from urban areas, as a high concentration of NSAIDs is detected (ranging from 5.87 × 103 to 7.18 × 104 ng/L). The percentage of NSAIDs removal in STP ranged from 25.6% to 92.3%. The NAP and KET were still detected at trace levels in treated water, indicating the persistent presence in the water cycle. The TI values for NAP and DIA (influent and effluent) were more than 1, showing a risk of a teratogenic effect. The IBU, KET, and DIC had values of less than 1, indicating the risk of lethal embryo effects. The NAP and DIA can be classified as Human Pregnancy Category C (2.1 > TI ≥ 0.76). This work proved that these drugs exist in the current urban water cycle, which could induce adverse effects on humans and the environment (RQ in high and low-risk categories). Therefore, they should be minimized, if not eliminated, from the primary sources of the pollutant (i.e., STPs). These pollutants should be considered a priority to be monitored, given focus to, and listed in the guideline due to their persistent presence in the urban water cycle.

Comparison performance of coagulation flocculation process and combination with ozonation process of stabilized landfill leachate treatment.

Landfill leachate is well known as a hazardous byproduct from dumpling sites that has a negative impact on the environment and human life. Therefore, an effective treatment is imperative to overcome this issue. This research study investigates the effectiveness of zirconium tetrachloride (ZrCl4 ) and tin tetrachloride (SnCl4 ) as a coagulant in leachate treatment. Two parameters selected as a performance indicator in this study are color and chemical oxygen demand (COD). The data obtained showed that SnCl4 performed well as a coagulant with removal percentages of color and COD, which are 97% and 77%, respectively. Furthermore, the potential of integrated treatment using ozonation (O3 ) and the coagulation-flocculation process was also investigated. Four sequences of integrated treatment setup for this study were ozonation followed by jar test (ZrCl4 as a coagulant), ozonation followed by jar test (SnCl4 as a coagulant), jar test (ZrCl4 as a coagulant) followed by the ozonation process, and jar test (SnCl4 as a coagulant) followed by the ozonation process. The experimental data showed that the combination treatment of SnCl4 as a coagulant (jar test) followed by the ozonation process had recorded the highest removal of color (97.1%) and COD (88%) compared to other sequences. Moreover, the biodegradability ratio of this sequence also improved from 0.03 to 0.28, compared with other methods. Comparatively, integrated treatment is more effective in treating stabilized landfill leachate compared to the coagulation flocculation process alone. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Stabilized landfill leachate is difficult to be treated by natural coagulants or biological process. SnCl4 performed well as a coagulant in removing COD and colour from landfill leachate compared to ZrCl4 . However, too much usage of SnCl4 potentially generate secondary pollutant. Therefore, combination with O3 as pre-treatment is investigated. Combination treatment of SnCl4 ( as coagulant) with O3 had recorded the highest removal of colour (97.1%) and COD (88%). The biodegradability ratio of this sequence also improved from 0.03 to 0.28.

Synthesis of natural starch from Elaeis guineensis trunk biomass applying bisulphite steeping method: Optimization by RSM.

A massive quantity of Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) trunk biomass, containing a significant amount of natural starch, is available in Malaysia as biowaste because of annual replantation. The efficient extraction of this starch (carbohydrate polymer) would be worthwhile concerning the environmental sustainability and economy through conversion to bioresources. This study investigated the effectiveness of the bisulfite steeping method for starch synthesis from oil palm trunk (OPT) biowaste. The central composite design (CCD) of Design-Expert software executed an experimental model design, data analysis, evaluated the impacts of process variables and their interaction through response surface methodology to optimize the bisulfite steeping method for starch synthesis. The developed quadratic models for four factors (strength of sodium bisulfite solution, steeping hour, mixing ratio with the bisulfite solution, and ultrapure water) and one response (%Yield) demonstrated that a significant starch yield (13.54%) is achievable employing 0.74% bisulfite solution, 5.6 steeping hours, for 1.6 and 0.6 mixing ratio with the bisulfite solution and ultrapure water respectively. Experimental outcomes were consistent with the predicted model, which eventually sustains the significance of this method. Malvern Zetasizer test revealed a bimodal granular distribution for starch, with 7.15 µm of hydrodynamic size. Starch morphology was determined by scanning electron microscopy. X-ray diffraction investigation exhibits an A-type model, specifying persistent characteristics, while FTIR confirms the presence of hydroxyl, carboxylic, and phenolic groups like other cereal starches.Implications: Malaysia is the 2nd largest palm oil exporter in the world. About 110 million tons of palm oil trunk (OPT) biomass is available annually during replanting activities. Modification of bio-wastes into a beneficial form (only 22% presently) like starch extraction would ensure potential reuse as a natural coagulant for wastewater and leachate treatment, food source, adhesives towards boosting the country's economy by sustainable waste management. The current study achieved better starch yield (13.54%) than previous, from the OPT biomass through the novel bisulfite steeping method. Therefore, this method will ascertain the effective implication of numerous economic activities.

Sustainable wastewater treatment by biochar/layered double hydroxide composites: Progress, challenges, and outlook.

Biochar/layered double hydroxide (LDH) composites have gained considerable attention in recent times as low-cost sustainable materials for applications in water treatment. This paper critically evaluates the latest development in applications of biochar/LDH composites in water treatment with an emphasis on adsorption and catalytic degradation of various pollutants. The adsorption of various noxious contaminants, i.e., heavy metals, dyes, anions, and pharmaceuticals onto biochar/LDH composites are described in detail by elaborating the adsorption mechanism and regeneration ability. The synergistic effect of LDH with biochar exhibited significant improvement in specific surface area, surface functional groups, structure heterogeneity, stability, and adsorption characteristics of the resulting biochar/LDH composites. The major hurdles and challenges associated with the synthesis and applications of biochar/LDH composites in water remediation are emphasized. Finally, a roadmap is suggested for future research to assure the effective applications of biochar/LDH composites in water purification.

Evaluating photo-degradation of COD and TOC in petroleum refinery wastewater by using TiO2/ZnO photo-catalyst.

The aim of this study is to investigate the performance of combined solar photo-catalyst of titanium oxide/zinc oxide (TiO2/ZnO) with aeration processes to treat petroleum wastewater. Central composite design with response surface methodology was used to evaluate the relationships between operating variables for TiO2 dosage, ZnO dosage, air flow, pH, and reaction time to identify the optimum operating conditions. Quadratic models for chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) removals prove to be significant with low probabilities (<0.0001). The obtained optimum conditions included a reaction time of 170 min, TiO2 dosage (0.5 g/L), ZnO dosage (0.54 g/L), air flow (4.3 L/min), and pH 6.8 COD and TOC removal rates of 99% and 74%, respectively. The TOC and COD removal rates correspond well with the predicted models. The maximum removal rate for TOC and COD was 99.3% and 76%, respectively at optimum operational conditions of TiO2 dosage (0.5 g/L), ZnO dosage (0.54 g/L), air flow (4.3 L/min), reaction time (170 min) and pH (6.8). The new treatment process achieved higher degradation efficiencies for TOC and COD and reduced the treatment time comparing with other related processes.

Aggregation and disaggregation of ZnO nanoparticles: influence of pH and adsorption of Suwannee River humic acid.

The surface charge and average size of manufactured ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) were studied as a function of pH to understand the aggregation behavior and importance of the electrostatic interactions in solution. The interactions between ZnO and Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) were then investigated under a range of environmentally relevant conditions with the ZnO nanoparticles pHPZC as the point of reference. The anionic charges carried by aquatic humic substances were found to play a major role in the aggregation and disaggregation of ZnO nanoparticles. At low concentrations of SRHA (<0.05 mg/L) and below the pHPZC, anionic SRHA was rapidly adsorbed onto the positively charged ZnO NPs hence promoting aggregation. With similar SHRA concentrations, at pHPZC, SRHA was able to control the suspension behavior of the ZnO and promote partial disaggregation in small volumes. This was more distinguishable when the pH was greater than pHPZC as SRHA formed a surface coating on the ZnO nanoparticles and enhanced stability via electrostatic and steric interactions. In most cases, the NP coating by SRHA induced disaggregation behavior in the ZnO nanoparticles and decreased the aggregate size in parallel to increasing SRHA concentrations. Results also suggest that environmental aquatic concentration ranges of humic acids largely modify the stability of aggregated or dispersed ZnO nanoparticles.

Evaluation of thermochemical pretreatment and continuous thermophilic condition in rice straw composting process enhancement.

The effects of thermochemical pretreatment and continuous thermophilic conditions on the composting of a mixture of rice straw residue and cattle manure were investigated using a laboratory-scale composting reactor. Results indicate that the composting period of rice straw can be shortened to less than 10 days by applying alkali pre-treatment and continuous thermophilic composting conditions. The parameters obtained on day 9 of this study are similar to the criteria level published by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. The moisture content, organic matter reduction, pH level, electrical conductivity, total organic carbon reduction, soluble chemical oxygen demand reduction, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, and germination index were 62.07%, 16.99%, 7.30%, 1058 µS/cm, 17.00%, 83.43%, 2.06%, 16.75%, and 90.33%, respectively. The results of this study suggest that the application of chemical-biological integrated processes under thermophilic conditions is a novel method for the rapid degradation and maturation of rice straw residue.

Response surface analysis and modeling of n-alkanes removal through bioremediation of weathered crude oil.

Central composite design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM) were employed to optimize four important variables, i.e. amounts of oil, bacterial inoculum, nitrogen and phosphorus, for the removal of selected n-alkanes during bioremediation of weathered crude oil in coastal sediments using laboratory bioreactors over a 60 day experimentation period. The reactors contained 1 kg soil with different oil, microorganisms and nutrients concentrations. The F Value of 26.89 and the probability value (P < 0.0001) demonstrated significance of the regression model. For crude oil concentration of 2, 16 and 30 g per kg sediments and under optimized conditions, n-alkanes removal was 97.38, 93.14 and 90.21% respectively. Natural attenuation removed 30.07, 25.92 and 23.09% n-alkanes from 2, 16 and 30 g oil/kg sediments respectively. Excessive nutrients addition was found to inhibit bioremediation.