Promoting Human Intestinal Organoid Formation and Stimulation Using Piezoelectric Nanofiber Matrices.

Human organoid model systems have changed the landscape of developmental biology and basic science. They serve as a great tool for human specific interrogation. In order to advance our organoid technology, we aimed to test the compatibility of a piezoelectric material with organoid generation, because it will create a new platform with the potential for sensing and actuating organoids in physiologically relevant ways. We differentiated human pluripotent stem cells into spheroids following the traditional human intestinal organoid (HIO) protocol atop a piezoelectric nanofiber scaffold. We observed that exposure to the biocompatible piezoelectric nanofibers promoted spheroid morphology three days sooner than with the conventional methodology. At day 28 of culture, HIOs grown on the scaffold appeared similar. Both groups were readily transplantable and developed well-organized laminated structures. Graft sizes between groups were similar. Upon characterizing the tissue further, we found no detrimental effects of the piezoelectric nanofibers on intestinal patterning or maturation. Furthermore, to test the practical feasibility of the material, HIOs were also matured on the nanofiber scaffolds and treated with ultrasound, which lead to increased cellular proliferation which is critical for organoid development and tissue maintenance. This study establishes a proof of concept for integrating piezoelectric materials as a customizable platform for on-demand electrical stimulation of cells using remote ultrasonic waveforms in regenerative medicine.

Direct Oral Anticoagulants in Nephrotic Syndrome: Our Experience and Literature Review.

Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is one of the common presentations of kidney diseases both in children and adults. NS patients, particularly those with membranous nephropathy, have increased risk of thromboembolic events. Heparin and vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) continue to be commonly used as prophylactic and therapeutic agents, given the experience of use of these agents in NS and nonrenal indications of anticoagulation. The use of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) in NS is reported in some case series, conference abstracts, and a few small studies. We report our experience of using DOACs in 11 patients of NS with severe hypoalbuminemia. Out of 11, one patient required change of anticoagulation from DOACs to VKA and the rest of them did well with DOACs. There were no bleeding episodes in our study. We suggest larger studies to be carried out to better understand the use of these agents in NS.

FOXF1 promotes tumor vessel normalization and prevents lung cancer progression through FZD4.

Cancer cells re-program normal lung endothelial cells (EC) into tumor-associated endothelial cells (TEC) that form leaky vessels supporting carcinogenesis. Transcriptional regulators that control the reprogramming of EC into TEC are poorly understood. We identified Forkhead box F1 (FOXF1) as a critical regulator of EC-to-TEC transition. FOXF1 was highly expressed in normal lung vasculature but was decreased in TEC within non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC). Low FOXF1 correlated with poor overall survival of NSCLC patients. In mice, endothelial-specific deletion of FOXF1 decreased pericyte coverage, increased vessel permeability and hypoxia, and promoted lung tumor growth and metastasis. Endothelial-specific overexpression of FOXF1 normalized tumor vessels and inhibited the progression of lung cancer. FOXF1 deficiency decreased Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in TECs through direct transcriptional activation of Fzd4. Restoring FZD4 expression in FOXF1-deficient TECs through endothelial-specific nanoparticle delivery of Fzd4 cDNA rescued Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in TECs, normalized tumor vessels and inhibited the progression of lung cancer. Altogether, FOXF1 increases tumor vessel stability, and inhibits lung cancer progression by stimulating FZD4/Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in TECs. Nanoparticle delivery of FZD4 cDNA has promise for future therapies in NSCLC.

Fragmentation of water clusters formed in helium nanodroplets by charge transfer and Penning ionization.

Helium nanodroplets ("HNDs") are widely used for forming tailor-made clusters and molecular complexes in a cold, transparent, and weakly interacting matrix. The characterization of embedded species by mass spectrometry is often complicated by the fragmentation and trapping of ions in the HNDs. Here, we systematically study fragment ion mass spectra of HND-aggregated water and oxygen clusters following their ionization by charge transfer ionization ("CTI") and Penning ionization ("PEI"). While the efficiency of PEI of embedded clusters is lower than for CTI by about factor 10, both the mean sizes of detected water clusters and the relative yields of unprotonated cluster ions are significantly larger, making PEI a "soft ionization" scheme. However, the tendency of ions to remain bound to HNDs leads to a reduced detection efficiency for large HNDs containing >104 helium atoms. These results are instrumental in determining optimal conditions for mass spectrometry and photoionization spectroscopy of molecular complexes and clusters aggregated in HNDs.

Numerical investigation of heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of ternary nanofluids through convergent and divergent channels.

The characteristics of nanomaterials have garnered significant attention in recent research on natural and forced convection. This study focuses on the forced convection characteristics of ternary nanofluids within convergent and divergent channels. The ternary nanofluid comprises titanium oxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and silver suspended in water, which serves as the base fluid. Using COMSOL Multiphysics 6.0, a reliable software for finite element analysis, numerical simulations were conducted for steady and incompressible two-dimensional flow. Reynolds numbers varying from 100 to 800 were employed to investigate forced convection. Additionally, we explored aspect ratios (channel height divided by the height of the convergent or divergent section) of -0.4, -0.2, 0, 0.2, and 0.4. Our findings revealed that only at aspect ratio a = 0.4 did the average outlet temperature increase as the Reynolds number rose, while other aspect ratios exhibited decreasing average temperatures with declining Reynolds numbers. Moreover, as the Reynolds number increased from 100 to 800 and the total volume fraction of the ternary nanofluids ranged from 0.003 to 0.15, there was a significant 100% enhancement in the average Nusselt number. For clarity, this article briefly presents essential information, such as the study's numerical nature, fluid properties (constant-property fluid), and the methodology (COMSOL Multiphysics 6.0, finite element analysis). Key conclusions are highlighted to enable readers to grasp the main outcomes at a glance. These details are also adequately covered in the manuscript to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the research. The utilization of this emerging phenomenon holds immense potential in various applications, ranging from the development of highly efficient heat exchangers to the optimization of thermal energy systems. This phenomenon can be harnessed in scenarios in which effective cost management in thermal production is a critical consideration.

Investigation of a two-dimensional photovoltaic thermal system using hybrid nanofluids and a rotating cylinder.

This article focuses on a numerical investigation aimed at enhancing the electrical performance of a two-dimensional photovoltaic thermal system (PV/T) through the application of cooling using hybrid nanofluids. The hybrid nanofluids consist of titanium oxide and silver nanoparticles suspended in water, while the PV/T system is based on polycrystalline silicon, copper, and a flow channel with a rotating cylinder. PV/T devices generate electricity from sunlight, but their performance degrades over time due to the heat generated by solar radiation. Therefore, nanofluids can be circulated through the bottom flow channel to cool the device. This study utilizes 2D incompressible Navier-Stokes equations to control fluid flow and energy equations to manage energy distribution. The COMSOL 6.0 finite element software is employed for comprehensive modeling and simulation. To enhance the performance of the PV/T system, a parametric study is conducted by varying the Reynolds number (ranging from 100 to 1000), cylinder rotational speed (varying from 0.01 to 0.2 m s-1), and silver volume fraction (ranging from 0.01 to 0.2). The results show that increasing the Reynolds number and the volume fraction of silver leads to a reduction in the maximum temperature of the cell. The maximum temperature of the cell also decreases with the rotational speed of the cylinder but only for high Reynolds numbers. By applying the present model, the cell's efficiency is improved by 5.93%.

Maximizing electrical output and reducing heat-related losses in photovoltaic thermal systems with a thorough examination of flow channel integration and nanofluid cooling.

In recent years, global energy demand has surged, emphasizing the need for nations to enhance energy resources. The photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) system, capable of generating electrical energy from sunlight, is a promising renewable energy solution. However, it faces the challenge of overheating, which reduces efficiency. To address this, we introduce a flow channel within the PV/T system, allowing coolant circulation to improve electrical efficiency. Within this study, we explore into the workings of a PV/T system configuration, featuring a polycrystalline silicon panel atop a copper absorber panel. This innovative setup incorporates a rectangular flow channel, enhanced with a centrally positioned rotating circular cylinder, designed to augment flow velocity. This arrangement presents a forced convection scenario, where heat transfer primarily occurs through conduction in the uppermost two layers, while the flow channel beneath experiences forced convection. To capture this complex phenomenon, we accurately address the two-dimensional Navier-Stokes and energy equations, employing simulations conducted via COMSOL 6.0 software, renowned for its utilization of the finite element method. To optimize heat dissipation and efficiency, we introduce a hybrid nanofluid comprised of titanium oxide and silver nanoparticles dispersed in water, circulating through the flow channel. Various critical parameters come under scrutiny, including the Reynolds number, explored across the range of 100-1000, the volume fractions of both nanoparticle types, systematically tested within the range of 0.001-0.05, and the controlled speed of the circular cylinder, maintained within the range of 0.1-0.25 m/s. It was found that incorporating silver nanoparticles as a suspended component is more effective in enhancing PV/T efficiency than the addition of titanium oxide. Additionally, maintaining the volume fraction of titanium oxide between 4 and 5% yields improved efficiency, provided that the cylinder rotates at a higher speed. It was observed that cell efficiency can be regulated by adjusting four parameters, such as the Reynolds number, cylinder rotation speed, and the volume fraction of both nanoparticles.

Demonstration of Safety in Wild Type Mice of npFOXF1, a Novel Nanoparticle-Based Gene Therapy for Alveolar Capillary Dysplasia with Misaligned Pulmonary Veins.

Introduction: Alveolar Capillary Dysplasia with Misaligned Pulmonary Veins (ACDMPV) is a fatal congenital disease resulting from a pulmonary vascular endothelial deficiency of FOXF1, producing abnormal morphogenesis of alveolar capillaries, malpositioned pulmonary veins and disordered development of lung lobes. Affected neonates suffer from cyanosis, severe breathing insufficiency, pulmonary hypertension, and death typically within days to weeks after birth. Currently, no treatment exists for ACDMPV, although recent murine research in the Kalinichenko lab demonstrates nanoparticle delivery improves survival and reconstitutes normal alveolar-capillary architecture. The aim of the present study is to investigate the safety of intravenous administration of FOXF1-expressing PEI-PEG nanoparticles (npFOXF1), our pioneering treatment for ACDMPV. Methods: npFOXF1 was constructed, validated, and subsequently administered in a single dose to postnatal day 14 (P14) mice via retro-orbital injection. Biochemical, serologic, and histologic safety were monitored at postnatal day 16 (P16) and postnatal day 21 (P21). Results: With treatment we observed no lethality, and the general condition of mice revealed no obvious abnormalities. Serum chemistry, whole blood, and histologic toxicity was assayed on P16 and P21 and revealed no abnormality. Discussion: In conclusion, npFOXF1 has a very good safety profile and combined with preceding studies showing therapeutic efficacy, npFOXF1 can be considered as a good candidate therapy for ACDMPV in human neonates.

A laminar forced convection via transport of water-copper-aluminum hybrid nanofluid through heated deep and shallow cavity with Corcione model.

The article explores how fluid flows and heat transfers in both deep and shallow cavities when using a nanofluid made of water, copper, and aluminum oxide. The study applies the Corcione model to hybrid nanofluids, which considers viscosity, conductivity, and the size of the nanoparticle, temperature, and Reynolds number. The cavity is connected to a rectangular channel, with the cavity's length being half the total length of the enclosure, and the aspect ratio (cavity height divided by height of the channel) is tested from 1 to 3. The study uses the Navier-Stokes equation and energy equation in two dimensions, along with finite element-based software, COMSOL 5.6, to simulate the combination of fluid flow and heat transmission. The results show a circular distribution of temperature in the cavity, and the average temperature drops as the volume fraction of copper upsurges. However, both the Reynolds number and volume fraction of copper improve the average Nusselt number, which shows how well the fluid transfers heat, along the cavity's middle line. The percentage change in the average Nusselt number decreases as the aspect ratio increases, indicating improved conduction.

FOXF1 Regulates Alveolar Epithelial Morphogenesis through Transcriptional Activation of Mesenchymal WNT5A.

Mutations in the FOXF1 (forkhead box F1) gene, encoding the mesenchymal FOX (forkhead box) transcription factor, are linked to alveolar capillary dysplasia with misalignment of pulmonary veins (ACDMPV), a severe congenital disorder associated with the loss of alveolar capillaries and lung hypoplasia. Although proangiogenic functions of FOXF1 have been extensively studied, the role of FOXF1 in mesenchymal-epithelial signaling during lung development remains uncharacterized. Herein, we used murine lung organoids to demonstrate that the S52F FOXF1 mutation (found in patients with ACDMPV) stimulates canonical WNT/ß-catenin signaling in type 2 alveolar epithelial cells (AEC2s), leading to increased proliferation of AEC2s and decreased differentiation of AEC2s into type 1 alveolar epithelial cells (AEC1s). Alveolar organoids containing Foxf1WT/S52F lung fibroblasts and wild-type epithelial cells grew faster on Matrigel and exhibited AEC2 hyperplasia. AEC2 hyperplasia and loss of AEC1s were found in the lungs of Foxf1WT/S52F embryos, a mouse model of ACDMPV. Activation of canonical WNT/ß-catenin signaling in AEC2s of lung organoids and Foxf1WT/S52F mice was associated with decreased expression of noncanonical WNT5A (Wnt family member 5A) ligand in lung fibroblasts. Mechanistically, FOXF1 directly activates the Wnt5a gene transcription through an evolutionarily conserved +6320/+6326 region located in the first intron of the Wnt5a gene. Site-directed mutagenesis of the +6320/+6326 region prevented the transcriptional activation of the Wnt5a enhancer by FOXF1. Treatment with exogenous WNT5A ligand inhibited the effects of the S52F FOXF1 mutation on canonical WNT/ß-catenin signaling in alveolar organoids, preventing aberrant AEC2 expansion and restoring differentiation of AEC1s. Activation of either FOXF1 or WNT5A may provide an attractive strategy to improve lung function in patients with ACDMPV.

Novel FOXF1-Stabilizing Compound TanFe Stimulates Lung Angiogenesis in Alveolar Capillary Dysplasia.

Rationale: Alveolar capillary dysplasia with misalignment of pulmonary veins (ACDMPV) is linked to heterozygous mutations in the FOXF1 (Forkhead Box F1) gene, a key transcriptional regulator of pulmonary vascular development. There are no effective treatments for ACDMPV other than lung transplant, and new pharmacological agents activating FOXF1 signaling are urgently needed. Objectives: Identify-small molecule compounds that stimulate FOXF1 signaling. Methods: We used mass spectrometry, immunoprecipitation, and the in vitro ubiquitination assay to identify TanFe (transcellular activator of nuclear FOXF1 expression), a small-molecule compound from the nitrile group, which stabilizes the FOXF1 protein in the cell. The efficacy of TanFe was tested in mouse models of ACDMPV and acute lung injury and in human vascular organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells of a patient with ACDMPV. Measurements and Main Results: We identified HECTD1 as an E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in ubiquitination and degradation of the FOXF1 protein. The TanFe compound disrupted FOXF1-HECTD1 protein-protein interactions and decreased ubiquitination of the FOXF1 protein in pulmonary endothelial cells in vitro. TanFe increased protein concentrations of FOXF1 and its target genes Flk1, Flt1, and Cdh5 in LPS-injured mouse lungs, decreasing endothelial permeability and inhibiting lung inflammation. Treatment of pregnant mice with TanFe increased FOXF1 protein concentrations in lungs of Foxf1+/- embryos, stimulated neonatal lung angiogenesis, and completely prevented the mortality of Foxf1+/- mice after birth. TanFe increased angiogenesis in human vascular organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells of a patient with ACDMPV with FOXF1 deletion. Conclusions: TanFe is a novel activator of FOXF1, providing a new therapeutic candidate for treatment of ACDMPV and other neonatal pulmonary vascular diseases.

Evaluation of changes in tongue pressure with twin-block appliance therapy in growing Class II Div 1 malocclusion. An in vivo study.

INTRODUCTION: Twin-block appliance therapy in patients with Class II Div 1 malocclusion positions the mandible anteroinferior leading to possible alterations in tongue pressure, tongue length, and the oropharynx. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the changes in tongue pressure, tongue length and dimension of the pharyngeal airway in Class II Division 1 subjects before and after twin-block therapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-four subjects were selected, in the range of 10-14 years (mean-12 years). The tongue pressure was recorded at three regions with sensors placed at the incisive papilla and bilaterally at the molar region of the palate for four minutes. The root mean square (RMS) values were recorded and used for further analysis. Evaluation of tongue length and pharyngeal airway dimension was done using a lateral cephalogram. All the measurements were done before and after twin-block appliance therapy. The paired t-test was performed to compare the changes. RESULTS: Resting tongue pressures decreased from pre-treatment levels to post-treatment at all three regions. Change in ANB angle was found to have a significant negative correlation with tongue length, and pharyngeal airway dimension, a significant positive correlation with pressure at incisive papilla and left molar region and no correlation at right molar region. CONCLUSION: There was a decrease in resting tongue pressure as the malocclusion was corrected from Class II to Class I. Hence, this decrease in pressure could be a contributory factor in the maintenance of the dental equilibrium as lighter forces exist in the oral cavity.

Effects of Vitamin D on Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity and Autoimmunity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

This study aims to assess the role of vitamin D on systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients and its effects on systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity index (SLEDAI), anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA), C3, C4, and fatigue in patients with SLE. A systemic search was conducted using three electronic databases, i.e., PubMed/Medline, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar. Review Manager 5.4.1 (The Cochrane Collaboration, The Nordic Cochrane Centre, Copenhagen, Denmark) was employed for statistical analysis. All studies meeting the inclusion criteria were selected. A random-effect model was used to pool the studies, and the result was reported in the standard mean difference (SMD) with its corresponding 95% confidence interval. Six randomized controlled trials were selected. Five outcomes were assessed (SLEDAI, anti-dsDNA, C3, C4, and fatigue) to evaluate the role of vitamin D in SLE patients. A significant decrease in SLEDAI (SMD = -0.85 (-1.12, -0.58); p < 0.00001; I2   = 42%) and a non-significant decrease in anti-dsDNA (SMD = -0.09 (-0.03, 0.12); p = 0.42; I2   = 0%) was noted. A significant increase in levels of C3 (SMD = 0.30 (0.09, 0.51); p = 0.006; I2 = 0%) and fatigue (SMD = -1.27 (-2.38, -0.16); p = 0.02; I2 = 56%) was noted when vitamin D was used. Insignificant difference was observed in C4 (SMD = 0.20 (-0.02, 0.41); p = 0.07; I2   = 0%). Vitamin D in SLE patients showed a significant decrease in SLEDAI scores and a significant increase in C3 levels. The effect of vitamin D on fatigue was inconclusive. No significant difference in anti-dsDNA and C4 levels was noted.

Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis through MPT64 gene polymorphism using next-generation sequencing technology.

Aim: To characterize and analyze polymorphism of the MPT64 gene and evaluate AgMPT64-based immunochromatographic assay (ICA) specificity associated with polymorphism. Materials & methods: A total of 1449 suspected samples were tested for tuberculosis (TB), and the MPT64/rv1980c gene was sequenced using next-generation sequencing for polymorphism analysis. Results: Of the TB-positive individuals, 200 (13.80%), 186 (12.84%) and 129 (8.90%) were positive using the liquid culture, GeneXpert and fluorescence microscopy assays, respectively. Liquid culture medium-based samples were confirmed using ICA, in which 193 (96.5%) were positive while seven (3.5%) were negative. Out of 14 sequenced samples, seven were positive and seven negative; 13 were identical to the reference and just one (ICA positive) showed a C477A point mutation (F159L). Conclusion: The results indicate that AgMPT64 can be considered as a potent vaccine candidate.

Thermal decomposition of propylene oxide with different activation energy and Reynolds number in a multicomponent tubular reactor containing a cooling jacket.

In this article, we are focusing on heat and mass transfer through a Multicomponent tubular reactor containing a cooling jacket by thermal decomposition of propylene oxide in water. The chemical reaction is an irreversible, 1st order reaction and an exothermic reaction that yields propylene glycol with enthalpy = -84,666 J/mol. The constant rate of the reaction is followed by the Arrhenius equation in which the activation energy is taken on a trial basis in the range from 75,000 to 80,000 J/mol with a fixed frequency factor. For the fluid to flow, the Reynolds number is kept in the range from 100 to 1000. The three partial differential equations of mass, momentum, and energy are coupled to study heat and mass transfer in a tubular reactor by using the chemistry interface in COMSOL Multiphysics 5.4. The initial concentration of propylene oxide is tested in the range from 2 to 3% and the thermal conductivity of the mixture is tested in the range 0.599-0.799. It was found that the amount deactivated of the compound decreases with an increase in Reynolds number. Propylene oxide is decomposed at about 99.8% at Re = 100 at lower activation energy and gives the total maximum enthalpy change in the tubular reactor. Observing the relationship between Sherwood numbers to Nusselt numbers, it was deducted that the convective heat transfer is opposite to convective mass transfer for high Reynolds numbers.

Ocular Complications Following Vaccination for COVID-19: A One-Year Retrospective.

Vaccination efforts as a mitigation strategy in the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic are fully underway. A vital component of understanding the optimal clinical use of these vaccines is a thorough investigation of adverse events following vaccination. To date, some limited reports and reviews have discussed ocular adverse events following COVID-19 vaccination, but a systematic review detailing these reports with manifestations and clinical courses as well as proposed mechanisms has yet to be published. This comprehensive review one-year into vaccination efforts against COVID-19 is meant to furnish sound understanding for ophthalmologists and primary care physicians based on the existing body of clinical data. We discuss manifestations categorized into one of the following: eyelid, orbit, uveitis, retina, vascular, neuro-ophthalmology, ocular motility disorders, and other.

[Release of amniotic constricted grooves by hemi-circumferential excision and skin closure without Z-plasty]. / Libérations des sillons de constriction amniotique par excision hémi-circonférentielle et fermeture cutanée sans plastie en Z.

INTRODUCTION: Constriction grooves are typical abnormalities of constriction band syndrome (CBS). Treatment by complete excision and Z-plastic closure is the gold standard for release of these grooves. However, the results of these Z-plasties are often judged to be aesthetically insufficient. The hypothesis was that direct excisional surgery without Z-plasty gave better aesthetic results. The objectives of this study were (1) to evaluate the clinicaal results of the release of amniotic furrows by simple hemi-circumferential excision without resorting to Z-plasties, (2) to study the occurrence of complications, (3) to study the factors leading to complications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All patients who had release of amniotic grooves by linear hemi-circumferential excision and closure without Z-plasties were included between 2011 and 2017. Release of complete or circumferential grooves was carried out in 2 stages. Clinical evaluation was based on parental satisfaction with the aesthetic appearance and occurrence of any complications or recurrence. RESULTS: Fourteen grooves including 8 circumferential and 6 semi-circumferential were released, in 7 patients. Average age at surgery was 9 months (3-18 months). Some patients had 1, 2 or 3 surgeries. The groove was localized in 7 cases in the leg, in 4 in the fingers and in 1 in the thigh, toes and forearm. At the last average follow-up of 25 months (12-41 months), all parents were very satisfied with the aesthetic appearance. No complications, including scarring, vascular or lymphatic disease, were noted. No recurrence was noted. CONCLUSION: Release of amniotic grooves by simple linear hemi-circumferential excision without Z-plasties is a simple, safe and effective technique. The aesthetic results are very satisfactory. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV - retrospective study.

Fungal Endophthalmitis: A Comprehensive Review.

Endophthalmitis is a serious ophthalmologic condition involving purulent inflammation of the intraocular spaces. The underlying etiology of infectious endophthalmitis is typically bacterial or fungal. The mechanism of entry into the eye is either exogenous, involving seeding of an infectious source from outside the eye (e.g., trauma or surgical complications), or endogenous, involving transit of an infectious source to the eye via the bloodstream. The most common organism for fungal endophthalmitis is Candida albicans. The most common clinical manifestation of fungal endophthalmitis is vision loss, but other signs of inflammation and infection are frequently present. Fungal endophthalmitis is a clinical diagnosis, which can be supported by vitreous, aqueous, or blood cultures. Treatment involves systemic and intravitreal antifungal medications as well as possible pars plana vitrectomy. In this review, we examine these essential elements of understanding fungal endophthalmitis as a clinically relevant entity, which threatens patients' vision.