Low copper and high manganese levels in prion protein plaques.

Accumulation of aggregates rich in an abnormally folded form of the prion protein characterize the neurodegeneration caused by transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). The molecular triggers of plaque formation and neurodegeneration remain unknown, but analyses of TSE-infected brain homogenates and preparations enriched for abnormal prion protein suggest that reduced levels of copper and increased levels of manganese are associated with disease. The objectives of this study were to: (1) assess copper and manganese levels in healthy and TSE-infected Syrian hamster brain homogenates; (2) determine if the distribution of these metals can be mapped in TSE-infected brain tissue using X-ray photoelectron emission microscopy (X-PEEM) with synchrotron radiation; and (3) use X-PEEM to assess the relative amounts of copper and manganese in prion plaques in situ. In agreement with studies of other TSEs and species, we found reduced brain levels of copper and increased levels of manganese associated with disease in our hamster model. We also found that the in situ levels of these metals in brainstem were sufficient to image by X-PEEM. Using immunolabeled prion plaques in directly adjacent tissue sections to identify regions to image by X-PEEM, we found a statistically significant relationship of copper-manganese dysregulation in prion plaques: copper was depleted whereas manganese was enriched. These data provide evidence for prion plaques altering local transition metal distribution in the TSE-infected central nervous system.

An x-ray photoemission electron microscopy study of the formation of Ti-Al phases in 4 mol% TiCl3 catalyzed NaAlH4 during high energy ball milling.

This study reports reaction pathways to form TiAlx metallic complexes during the high energy ball milling of 4 mol% TiCl3 with NaAlH4 powders determined using local structure analysis of Tix+ and Alx+ species. Using x-ray photoemission electron microscopy (XPEEM) and x-ray diffraction (XRD), the oxidation state of Alx+ and Tix+ and the crystalline compounds existing in equilibrium with NaAlH4 were tracked for samples milled for times of 0 (i.e. mixing), 5, and 25 min. XPEEM analysis of the Al K edge after 5 min of milling reveals that Al remains in the 3+ oxidation state (i.e. in NaAlH4) around Ti0-rich regions of the sample. After 25 min of high energy milling, Ti0 has reacted with Al3+ (in nearby NaAlH4) to form TiAlx complexes. This study reports the pathway for TiAlx complex formation during milling of 4 mol% TiCl3catalyzed NaAlH4 to be as follows: (1) Ti3+ reduces to Ti0 (with Al3+ near Ti0 regions) and (2) Ti0 reacts with Al3+ in NaAlH4 to form TiAlx complexes.

Transformation mechanism of amorphous calcium carbonate into calcite in the sea urchin larval spicule.

Sea urchin larval spicules transform amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) into calcite single crystals. The mechanism of transformation is enigmatic: the transforming spicule displays both amorphous and crystalline properties, with no defined crystallization front. Here, we use X-ray photoelectron emission spectromicroscopy with probing size of 40-200 nm. We resolve 3 distinct mineral phases: An initial short-lived, presumably hydrated ACC phase, followed by an intermediate transient form of ACC, and finally the biogenic crystalline calcite phase. The amorphous and crystalline phases are juxtaposed, often appearing in adjacent sites at a scale of tens of nanometers. We propose that the amorphous-crystal transformation propagates in a tortuous path through preexisting 40- to 100-nm amorphous units, via a secondary nucleation mechanism.

Assignment of polarization-dependent peaks in carbon K-edge spectra from biogenic and geologic aragonite.

Many biominerals, including mollusk and echinoderm shells, avian eggshells, modern and fossil bacterial sediments, planktonic coccolithophores, and foraminifera, contain carbonates in the form of biogenic aragonite or calcite. Here we analyze biogenic and geologic aragonite using different kinds of surface- and bulk-sensitive X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy at the carbon K-edge, as well as high-resolution scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM). Besides the well-known main pi* and sigma* carbonate peaks, we observed and fully characterized four minor peaks, at energies between the main pi* and sigma* peaks. As expected, the main peaks are similar in geologic and biogenic aragonite, while the minor peaks differ in relative intensity. In this and previous work, the minor peaks appear to be the ones most affected in biomineralization processes, hence the interest in characterizing them. Peak assignment was achieved by correlation of polarization-dependent behavior of the minor peaks with that of the main pi* and sigma* peaks. The present characterization provides the background for future studies of aragonitic biominerals.

Probing the organic-mineral interface at the molecular level in model biominerals.

It is widely known that macromolecules, such as proteins, can control the nucleation and growth of inorganic solids in biomineralizing organisms. However, what is not known are the complementary molecular interactions, organization, and rearrangements that occur when proteins interact with inorganic solids during the formation of biominerals. The organic-mineral interface (OMI) is expected to be the site for these phenomena, and is therefore extraordinarily interesting to investigate. In this report, we employ X-ray absorption near edge (XANES) spectromicroscopy to investigate the electronic structure of both calcium carbonate mineral crystals and polypeptides, and detect changing bonds at the OMI during crystal growth in the presence of polypeptides. We acquired XANES spectra from calcium carbonate crystals grown in the presence of three mollusk nacre-associated polypeptides (AP7N, AP24N, n16N) and in the presence of a sea urchin spicule matrix protein, LSM34. All these model biominerals gave similar results, including the disruption of CO bonds in calcite and enhancement of the peaks associated with C-H bonds and C-O bonds in peptides, indicating ordering of the amino acid side chains in the mineral-associated polypeptides and carboxylate binding. This is the first evidence of the mutual effect of calcite on peptide chain and peptide chain on calcite during biomineralization. We also show that these changes do not occur when Asp and Glu are replaced in the n16N sequence with Asn and Gln, respectively, demonstrating that carboxyl groups in Asp and Glu do participate in polypeptide-mineral molecular associations.

Architecture of columnar nacre, and implications for its formation mechanism.

We analyze the structure of Haliotis rufescens nacre, or mother-of-pearl, using synchrotron spectromicroscopy and x-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy. We observe imaging contrast between adjacent individual nacre tablets, arising because different tablets have different crystal orientations with respect to the radiation's polarization vector. Comparing previous data and our new data with models for columnar nacre growth, we find the data are most consistent with a model in which nacre tablets are nucleated by randomly distributed sites in the organic matrix layers.

Control of pertechnetate sorption on activated carbon by surface functional groups.

The isotope 99Tc is highly soluble and poorly adsorbed by natural materials under oxidizing conditions, thus being of particular concern for radioactive waste disposal. Activated carbon can potentially be used as an adsorbent for removing Tc from aqueous solutions. We have tested six commercial activated carbon materials for their capabilities for sorption of pertechnetate (TcO4-). The tested materials can be grouped into two distinct types: Type I materials have high sorption capabilities with the distribution coefficients (Kd) varying from 9.5 x 10(5) to 3.2 x 10(3) ml/g as the pH changes from 4.5 to 9.5, whereas type II materials have relatively low sorption capabilities with Kd remaining more or less constant (1.1 x 10(3)-1.8 x 10(3) ml/g) over a similar pH range. The difference in sorption behavior between the two types of materials is attributed to the distribution of surface functional groups. The predominant surface groups are identified as carboxylic and phenolic groups. The carboxylic group can be further divided into three subgroups, A, B, and C, in the order of increasing acidity. The high sorption capabilities of type I materials are found to be caused by the presence of a large fraction of carboxylic subgroups A and B, while the low sorption capabilities of type II materials are due to the exclusive presence of phenolic and carboxylic subgroup C. Therefore, the performance of activated carbon for removing TcO4- can be improved by enhancing the formation of carboxylic subgroups A and B during materials processing.