Allied health professional research engagement and impact on healthcare performance: A systematic review protocol.

BACKGROUND: Existing evidence suggests that clinician and organization engagement in research can improve healthcare processes of care and outcomes. However, current evidence has considered the relationship across all healthcare professions collectively. With the increase in allied health clinical academic and research activity, it is imperative for healthcare organizations, leaders and managers to understand engagement in research within these specific clinical fields. This systematic review aims to identify the effect of engagement in research by allied health professionals (AHPs) and organizations on healthcare performance. METHODS: This systematic review has a two-stage search strategy. The first stage will be to screen a previous systematic review examining the effectiveness of engagement in research in health and social care to identify relevant papers published pre-2012. The search strategy used in the previous review will then be rerun, but with a specific focus on allied health. This multi-database search will identify publications from 2012 to date. Only studies that assessed the effectiveness of allied health engagement in research will be included. All stages of the review will be conducted by two reviewers independently, plus documented discussions with the wider research team when discrepancies occur. This systematic review protocol follows the EQUATOR reporting guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Protocols (PRISMA-P). DISCUSSION: The findings of this review will make a significant contribution to the evidence base around the effect of allied health engagement in research on healthcare performance. It will provide insights for clinicians and managers looking to understand the consequences of developing AHP research capability and capacity. The findings of this review will also aim to make recommendations for future evaluation approaches for engagement in research interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This systematic review protocol has been registered with PROSPERO, registration number CRD42021253461. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject This study will provide valuable evidence for professionals and policymakers seeking to understand engagement in research in the allied health disciplines. Where supported by the data, there may be recommendations for future research regarding specific variables to be considered when planning and evaluating engagement in research in allied health practice. What this paper adds to existing knowledge A previous systematic review identified a positive association between clinician and organization engagement in research and improved processes of care and health outcomes. The reviews' findings have been used as a justification for clinicians and organizations to increase research capacity. That review evaluated literature published before 2012 and the studies that were identified predominantly reported on engagement in research by medics and nurses. An updated review is now required to include research published since 2012. This review will specifically focus on the effect of engagement in research within allied health disciplines. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Research activity among AHPs is gaining momentum. Given this growth in AHP research activity and the rise in dedicated clinical academic roles, a contemporary review to identify the specific effect of AHP engagement in research on healthcare performance is prudent. The findings will inform clinicians, clinical managers and leaders of the potential impact of research activities by AHP clinicians and organizations. This will support the planning and development of initiatives focused on research capacity, capability and culture within allied health.

Determining the Functional Status of the Corticospinal Tract Within One Week of Stroke.

High interindividual variability in the recovery of upper limb (UL) function after stroke means it is difficult to predict an individual's potential for recovery based on clinical assessments alone. The functional integrity of the corticospinal tract is an important prognostic biomarker for recovery of UL function, particularly for those with severe initial UL impairment. This article presents a protocol for evaluating corticospinal tract function within 1 week of stroke. This protocol can be used to select and stratify patients in trials of interventions designed to improve UL motor recovery and outcomes after stroke. The protocol also forms part of the PREP2 algorithm, which predicts UL function for individual patients 3 months poststroke. The algorithm sequentially combines a UL strength assessment, age, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and stroke severity, within a few days of the stroke. The benefits of using PREP2 in clinical practice are described elsewhere. This article focuses on the use of a UL strength assessment and transcranial magnetic stimulation to evaluate corticospinal tract function.

Neurochemical balance and inhibition at the subacute stage after stroke.

Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide with many people left with impaired motor function. Evidence from experimental animal models of stroke indicates that reducing motor cortex inhibition may facilitate neural plasticity and motor recovery. This study compared primary motor cortex (M1) inhibition measures over the first 12 wk after stroke with a cohort of age-similar healthy controls. The excitation-inhibition ratio and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmission within M1 were assessed using magnetic resonance spectroscopy and threshold hunting paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation respectively. Upper limb impairment and function were assessed with the Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity Scale and Action Research Arm Test. Patients with a functional corticospinal pathway had motor-evoked potentials on the paretic side and exhibited better recovery from upper limb impairment and recovery of function than patients without a functional corticospinal pathway. Compared with age-similar controls, the neurochemical balance in terms of the excitation-inhibition ratio was greater within contralesional M1 in patients with a functional corticospinal pathway. There was evidence for elevated long-interval inhibition in both ipsilesional and contralesional M1 compared with controls. Short-interval inhibition measures differed between the first and second phases, with evidence for elevation of the former only in ipsilesional M1 and no evidence of disinhibition for the latter. Overall, findings from transcranial magnetic stimulation indicate an upregulation of GABA-mediated tonic inhibition in M1 early after stroke. Therapeutic approaches that aim to normalize inhibitory tone during the subacute period warrant further investigation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Magnetic resonance spectroscopy indicated higher excitation-inhibition ratios within motor cortex during subacute recovery than age-similar healthy controls. Measures obtained from adaptive threshold hunting paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation indicated greater tonic inhibition in patients compared with controls. Therapeutic approaches that aim to normalize motor cortex inhibition during the subacute stage of recovery should be explored.

PREP2 Algorithm Predictions Are Correct at 2 Years Poststroke for Most Patients.

Background. The PREP2 algorithm combines clinical and neurophysiological measures to predict upper-limb (UL) motor outcomes 3 months poststroke, using 4 prediction categories based on Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) scores. The algorithm was accurate at 3 months for 75% of participants in a previous validation study. Objective. This study aimed to evaluate whether PREP2 predictions made at baseline are correct 2 years poststroke. We also assessed whether patients' UL performance remained stable, improved, or worsened between 3 months and 2 years after stroke. Methods. This is a follow-up study of 192 participants recruited and assessed in the original PREP2 validation study. Participants who completed assessments 3 months poststroke (n = 157) were invited to complete follow-up assessments at 2 years poststroke for the present study. UL outcomes were assessed with the ARAT, upper extremity Fugl-Meyer Scale, and Motor Activity Log. Results. A total of 86 participants completed 2-year follow-up assessments in this study. PREP2 predictions made at baseline were correct for 69/86 (80%) participants 2 years poststroke, and PREP2 UL outcome category was stable between 3 months and 2 years poststroke for 71/86 (83%). There was no difference in age, stroke severity, or comorbidities among patients whose category remained stable, improved, or deteriorated. Conclusions. PREP2 algorithm predictions made within days of stroke are correct at both 3 months and 2 years poststroke for most patients. Further investigation may be useful to identify which patients are likely to improve, remain stable, or deteriorate between 3 months and 2 years.

The Influence of Primary Motor Cortex Inhibition on Upper Limb Impairment and Function in Chronic Stroke: A Multimodal Study.

BACKGROUND: Stroke is a leading cause of adult disability owing largely to motor impairment and loss of function. After stroke, there may be abnormalities in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated inhibitory function within primary motor cortex (M1), which may have implications for residual motor impairment and the potential for functional improvements at the chronic stage. OBJECTIVE: To quantify GABA neurotransmission and concentration within ipsilesional and contralesional M1 and determine if they relate to upper limb impairment and function at the chronic stage of stroke. METHODS: Twelve chronic stroke patients and 16 age-similar controls were recruited for the study. Upper limb impairment and function were assessed with the Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity Scale and Action Research Arm Test. Threshold tracking paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation protocols were used to examine short- and long-interval intracortical inhibition and late cortical disinhibition. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to evaluate GABA concentration. RESULTS: Short-interval intracortical inhibition was similar between patients and controls ( P = .10). Long-interval intracortical inhibition was greater in ipsilesional M1 compared with controls ( P < .001). Patients who did not exhibit late cortical disinhibition in ipsilesional M1 were those with greater upper limb impairment and worse function ( P = .002 and P = .017). GABA concentration was lower within ipsilesional ( P = .009) and contralesional ( P = .021) M1 compared with controls, resulting in an elevated excitation-inhibition ratio for patients. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that ipsilesional and contralesional M1 GABAergic inhibition are altered in this small cohort of chronic stroke patients. Further study is warranted to determine how M1 inhibitory networks might be targeted to improve motor function.

PREP2: A biomarker-based algorithm for predicting upper limb function after stroke.

Objective: Recovery of motor function is important for regaining independence after stroke, but difficult to predict for individual patients. Our aim was to develop an efficient, accurate, and accessible algorithm for use in clinical settings. Clinical, neurophysiological, and neuroimaging biomarkers of corticospinal integrity obtained within days of stroke were combined to predict likely upper limb motor outcomes 3 months after stroke. Methods: Data from 207 patients recruited within 3 days of stroke [103 females (50%), median age 72 (range 18-98) years] were included in a Classification and Regression Tree analysis to predict upper limb function 3 months poststroke. Results: The analysis produced an algorithm that sequentially combined a measure of upper limb impairment; age; the presence or absence of upper limb motor evoked potentials elicited with transcranial magnetic stimulation; and stroke lesion load obtained from MRI or stroke severity assessed with the NIHSS score. The algorithm makes correct predictions for 75% of patients. A key biomarker obtained with transcranial magnetic stimulation is required for one third of patients. This biomarker combined with NIHSS score can be used in place of more costly magnetic resonance imaging, with no loss of prediction accuracy. Interpretation: The new algorithm is more accurate, efficient, and accessible than its predecessors, which may support its use in clinical practice. While further work is needed to potentially incorporate sensory and cognitive factors, the algorithm can be used within days of stroke to provide accurate predictions of upper limb functional outcomes at 3 months after stroke. www.presto.auckland.ac.nz.

Predicting Recovery Potential for Individual Stroke Patients Increases Rehabilitation Efficiency.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Several clinical measures and biomarkers are associated with motor recovery after stroke, but none are used to guide rehabilitation for individual patients. The objective of this study was to evaluate the implementation of upper limb predictions in stroke rehabilitation, by combining clinical measures and biomarkers using the Predict Recovery Potential (PREP) algorithm. METHODS: Predictions were provided for patients in the implementation group (n=110) and withheld from the comparison group (n=82). Predictions guided rehabilitation therapy focus for patients in the implementation group. The effects of predictive information on clinical practice (length of stay, therapist confidence, therapy content, and dose) were evaluated. Clinical outcomes (upper limb function, impairment and use, independence, and quality of life) were measured 3 and 6 months poststroke. The primary clinical practice outcome was inpatient length of stay. The primary clinical outcome was Action Research Arm Test score 3 months poststroke. RESULTS: Length of stay was 1 week shorter for the implementation group (11 days; 95% confidence interval, 9-13 days) than the comparison group (17 days; 95% confidence interval, 14-21 days; P=0.001), controlling for upper limb impairment, age, sex, and comorbidities. Therapists were more confident (P=0.004) and modified therapy content according to predictions for the implementation group (P<0.05). The algorithm correctly predicted the primary clinical outcome for 80% of patients in both groups. There were no adverse effects of algorithm implementation on patient outcomes at 3 or 6 months poststroke. CONCLUSIONS: PREP algorithm predictions modify therapy content and increase rehabilitation efficiency after stroke without compromising clinical outcome. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: URL: http://anzctr.org.au. Unique identifier: ACTRN12611000755932.

Proportional Motor Recovery After Stroke: Implications for Trial Design.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Recovery of upper-limb motor impairment after first-ever ischemic stroke is proportional to the degree of initial impairment in patients with a functional corticospinal tract (CST). This study aimed to investigate whether proportional recovery occurs in a more clinically relevant sample including patients with intracerebral hemorrhage and previous stroke. METHODS: Patients with upper-limb weakness were assessed 3 days and 3 months poststroke with the Fugl-Meyer scale. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to test CST function, and patients were dichotomized according to the presence of motor evoked potentials in the paretic wrist extensors. Linear regression modeling of Δ Fugl-Meyer score between 3 days and 3 months was performed, with predictors including initial impairment (66 - baseline Fugl-Meyer score), age, sex, stroke type, previous stroke, comorbidities, and upper-limb therapy dose. RESULTS: One hundred ninety-two patients were recruited, and 157 completed 3-month follow-up. Patients with a functional CST made a proportional recovery of 63% (95% confidence interval, 55%-70%) of initial motor impairment. The recovery of patients without a functional CST was not proportional to initial impairment and was reduced by greater CST damage. CONCLUSIONS: Recovery of motor impairment in patients with intact CST is proportional to initial impairment and unaffected by previous stroke, type of stroke, or upper-limb therapy dose. Novel interventions that interact with the neurobiological mechanisms of recovery are needed. The generalizability of proportional recovery is such that patients with intracerebral hemorrhage and previous stroke may usefully be included in interventional rehabilitation trials. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: URL: http://www.anzctr.org.au. Unique identifier: ANZCTR12611000755932.

Primed Physical Therapy Enhances Recovery of Upper Limb Function in Chronic Stroke Patients.

BACKGROUND: Recovery of upper limb function is important for regaining independence after stroke. OBJECTIVE: To test the effects of priming upper limb physical therapy with intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS), a form of noninvasive brain stimulation. METHODS: Eighteen adults with first-ever chronic monohemispheric subcortical stroke participated in this randomized, controlled, triple-blinded trial. Intervention consisted of priming with real or sham iTBS to the ipsilesional primary motor cortex immediately before 45 minutes of upper limb physical therapy, daily for 10 days. Changes in upper limb function (Action Research Arm Test [ARAT]), upper limb impairment (Fugl-Meyer Scale), and corticomotor excitability, were assessed before, during, and immediately, 1 month and 3 months after the intervention. Functional magnetic resonance images were acquired before and at one month after the intervention. RESULTS: Improvements in ARAT were observed after the intervention period when therapy was primed with real iTBS, but not sham, and were maintained at 1 month. These improvements were not apparent halfway through the intervention, indicating a dose effect. Improvements in ARAT at 1 month were related to balancing of corticomotor excitability and an increase in ipsilesional premotor cortex activation during paretic hand grip. CONCLUSIONS: Two weeks of iTBS-primed therapy improves upper limb function at the chronic stage of stroke, for at least 1 month postintervention, whereas therapy alone may not be sufficient to alter function. This indicates a potential role for iTBS as an adjuvant to therapy delivered at the chronic stage.

Proportional recovery after stroke depends on corticomotor integrity.

OBJECTIVE: For most patients, resolution of upper limb impairment during the first 6 months poststroke is 70% of the maximum possible. We sought to identify candidate mechanisms of this proportional recovery. We hypothesized that proportional resolution of upper limb impairment depends on ipsilesional corticomotor pathway function, is mirrored by proportional recovery of excitability in this pathway, and is unaffected by upper limb therapy dose. METHODS: Upper limb impairment was measured in 93 patients at 2, 6, 12, and 26 weeks after first-ever ischemic stroke. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and motor threshold were recorded from extensor carpi radialis using transcranial magnetic stimulation, and fractional anisotropy (FA) in the posterior limbs of the internal capsules was determined with diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: Initial impairment score, presence of MEPs and FA asymmetry were the only predictors of impairment resolution, indicating a key role for corticomotor tract function. By 12 weeks, upper limb impairment resolved by 70% in patients with MEPs regardless of their initial impairment, and ipsilesional rest motor threshold also resolved by 70%. Resolution of impairment was insensitive to upper limb therapy dose. INTERPRETATION: These findings indicate that upper limb impairment resolves by 70% of the maximum possible, regardless of initial impairment, but only for patients with intact corticomotor function. Impairment resolution seems to reflect spontaneous neurobiological processes that involve the ipsilesional corticomotor pathway. A better understanding of these mechanisms could lead to interventions that increase resolution of impairment above 70%.

Priming sensorimotor cortex to enhance task-specific training after subcortical stroke.

OBJECTIVE: This double-blind sham-controlled crossover study investigated the interactions between primary sensory and motor cortex after stroke and their response to Theta Burst Stimulation (TBS). METHODS: Thirteen chronic subcortical stroke patients with upper limb impairment performed standardised dexterity training primed with ipsilesional M1 intermittent TBS (iTBSiM1), contralesional M1 continuous TBS (cTBScM1) or sham TBS. The effects on sensorimotor integration, corticomotor excitability, sensation and grip-lift kinetics were examined. RESULTS: After iTBSiM1, improvements in paretic grip-lift performance were accompanied by an immediate facilitation of ipsilesional M1 excitability and a subsequent increase in ipsilesional short latency afferent inhibition (SAI) during training. Precision grip-lift performance improved after cTBScM1 and training, alongside increased ipsilesional M1 excitability with no effect on ipsilesional SAI. There were no effects on sensory performance. CONCLUSION: Primary motor cortex iTBS not only modulates M1 corticospinal excitability but also increases M1 receptiveness to sensory input. SIGNIFICANCE: Priming with iTBSiM1 may enhance ipsilesional sensorimotor integration and facilitate better quality sensorimotor training after subcortical stroke.

Promoting use-dependent plasticity with externally-paced training.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate use-dependent plasticity (UDP) before and after training under metronome-paced and self-paced conditions. METHODS: Twelve healthy adults were recruited to this cross-over, pseudo-randomized, repeated measures study. Participants performed wrist extension training that was either self-paced, or externally-paced to an auditory metronome at their preferred movement frequency or at a more demanding frequency. Motor evoked potentials from transcranial magnetic stimulation of left primary motor cortex were recorded in right extensor carpi radialis (ECR) and flexor carpi radialis (FCR) to assess corticomotor excitability. The direction and velocity of TMS-evoked wrist movement (stimulus-evoked velocity, SEV) were measured before and after training to evaluate UDP. RESULTS: The most persistent UDP occurred when training was metronome-paced at the participant's preferred movement frequency. This training protocol produced spatially selective modulation of resting ECR and FCR corticomotor excitability and directional tuning of TMS-evoked wrist movement toward the trained direction. Metronome-paced training at a more demanding frequency resulted in nonspecific facilitation of resting corticomotor excitability, and did not alter TMS-evoked wrist movement. CONCLUSIONS: These novel findings indicate that externally-paced training at the individual's preferred frequency facilitates UDP. SIGNIFICANCE: UDP underpins motor recovery after stroke. Externally-paced training may be a useful adjunct to movement rehabilitation therapy.

Combining theta burst stimulation with training after subcortical stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the primary motor cortex (M1) may improve outcomes after stroke. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of M1 theta burst stimulation (TBS) and standardized motor training on upper-limb function of patients with chronic stroke. METHODS: Ten patients with chronic subcortical stroke and upper-limb impairment were recruited to this double-blind, crossover, sham-controlled study. Intermittent TBS of the ipsilesional M1, continuous TBS of the contralesional M1, and sham TBS were delivered in separate sessions in conjunction with standardized training of a precision grip task using the paretic upper limb. RESULTS: Training after real TBS improved paretic-hand grip-lift kinetics, whereas training after sham TBS resulted in deterioration of grip-lift. Ipsilesional M1 excitability increased after intermittent TBS of the ipsilesional M1 but decreased after continuous TBS of the contralesional M1. Action Research Arm Test scores deteriorated when training followed continuous TBS of the contralesional M1, and this was correlated with reduced ipsilesional corticomotor excitability. CONCLUSIONS: Generally, TBS and training led to task-specific improvements in grip-lift. Specifically, continuous TBS of the contralesional M1 led to an overall decrement in upper-limb function, indicating that the contralesional hemisphere may play a pivotal role in recovery after stroke.

Assessment of quality of life and participation within an outpatient rehabilitation setting.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the use of quality of life and participation measures in routine rehabilitation practice, determine the relationship between two scales and investigate their ability to evaluate change in a general outpatient population over a time of rehabilitation. METHODS: This cohort study consisted of 55 patients admitted consecutively to an outpatient rehabilitation centre. All participants completed the WHOQOL-BREF and the London Handicap Scale (LHS) at admission and discharge. RESULTS: Non-parametric statistical analysis demonstrated a significant change in the total scores of both the WHOQOL-BREF and LHS over time (Z = -4.33, P < 0.001 and Z = -4.40, P < 0.001 respectively) with 'better' scores on completion of rehabilitation. A strong correlation existed between the total WHOQOL-BREF and LHS scores both cross-sectionally (admission and discharge p > 0.7), and longitudinally (p = 0.63). CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated a strong relationship between quality of life and participation, with change shown using both scales over a period of outpatient rehabilitation. Given the findings, it seems appropriate to use only one of these measures. The WHOQOL-BREF has a wider scope, being useful both to evaluate service delivery in a diverse outpatient population or when measuring an individual over time.

The effect of coordination mode on use-dependent plasticity.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role of coordination mode on the generation of use-dependent plasticity (UDP) within the primary motor cortex (M1). METHODS: Ten healthy volunteers performed brisk repetitive thumb movements for 30 min in the opposite direction to those evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) prior to training. This practice was synchronized or syncopated with a 1 Hz auditory metronome in two separate sessions. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded from 3 intrinsic thumb muscles, to assess changes in corticomotor excitability. RESULTS: Both synchronized and syncopated motor practice induced changes in the direction of TMS-evoked thumb movements, away from the baseline direction toward the trained direction. MEP amplitude increased following synchronized, but not syncopated, motor practice. Changes in movement direction and corticomotor excitability lasted for at least 30 minutes. CONCLUSIONS: UDP can be elicited in the presence or absence of changes in corticomotor excitability. SIGNIFICANCE: Motor practice that is synchronized with external pacing may promote UDP and facilitate corticomotor excitability in patient populations with reduced corticomotor output, such as stroke. Training that is syncopated with external pacing may promote UDP without increasing corticomotor excitability. This could be relevant for individuals with disorders characterized by maladaptive plasticity.