Autocrine regulation of milk secretion.

Mammary development and the rate of milk secretion are regulated by frequency and completeness of milk removal. This regulation occurs through chemical feedback inhibition by a milk constituent. Novel, immunologically related milk proteins able to perform this function have been isolated from caprine, bovine and human milk, based on their ability to inhibit milk constituent synthesis in mammary tissue and cell cultures, and to decrease temporarily milk secretion when added to milk stored in the mammary gland. Inhibition is concentration-dependent, suggesting that milk accumulation and removal is accompanied by cyclical changes in inhibitor accretion and depletion in milk. Feedback inhibition is an autocrine mechanism: the caprine inhibitor, termed FIL (feedback inhibitor of lactation) is synthesized by mammary epithelial cells in primary culture. Inhibition is by reversible blockade of the secretory pathway, an effect which, by down-regulating cell-surface hormone receptors, has longer-term consequences on epithelial cell differentiation. Treatment of goat mammary epithelial cell cultures with caprine FIL initially decreased milk protein secretion and subsequently reduced milk protein messenger RNA abundance. Thus the actions of a single milk constituent can bring about both the effect of milking frequency on milk secretion rate and a sequential modulation of cellular differentiation which acts to sustain the secretory response. Long-term regulation, through changes in galactopoietic hormone receptors, also provides an efficient mechanism for integrating acute intramammary regulation of lactation with strategic endocrine control of mammary tissue development.

Programmed cell death in bovine mammary tissue during lactation and involution.

Cessation of milk removal causes mammary tissue involution, which in rodents is characterized by extensive tissue degeneration and loss of the majority of luminal epithelial cells by apoptosis. In contrast, bovine mammary tissue shows little histological evidence of tissue remodelling between lactations. In this study, we combined histology with molecular biology to examine the cellular and molecular changes in bovine mammary tissue on cessation of milking. Oligonucleosomal laddering of genomic DNA extracted from lactating tissue indicated that a proportion of cells were dying by apoptosis. This was confirmed by terminal deoxynucleotide transferase-mediated deoxyuridine nick end-labelling of apoptotic cells in lactating tissue sections (TUNEL). One week after cessation of milking, alpha-lactalbumin and alpha S1-casein messenger RNA (mRNA) abundance had decreased by 99 and 85%, respectively, whereas lactoferrin mRNA had increased 20-fold. Drying off was also accompanied by an increase in oligonucleosomal laddering of genomic DNA, and by an increase in the proportion of TUNEL-positive cells, which were localized preferentially in regions where alveolar structure had deteriorated. Therefore, termination of lactation was associated with partial loss of the mammary cell population and dedifferentiation of the remainder.

Programmed cell death during mammary tissue involution induced by weaning, litter removal, and milk stasis.

Programmed cell death in mammary tissue was studied during natural weaning in lactating mice and after litter removal or milk stasis. All treatments stimulated mammary apoptosis, indicating that this process is an integral part of the tissue's involution after lactation. Induction of apoptosis was slower in natural weaning than after litter removal but occurred earlier when mice were concurrently pregnant during natural weaning. Ipsilateral induction of apoptosis by milk stasis in teat-sealed glands indicates that cell death is under local (i.e., intramammary) as well as endocrine regulation. Apoptosis detected by DNA laddering was associated with changes in expression of p53 and bax, two genes implicated in the regulation of cell death, and was accompanied by structural degeneration characteristic of mammary involution. Reciprocal changes in stromelysin mRNA, and that of its inhibitor TIMP-2, suggested that this structural reorganisation was the result of coordinated changes in gene expression favouring proteolysis of the extracellular matrix.

Effects of immunization against an autocrine inhibitor of milk secretion in lactating goats.

1. Lactating goats were immunized against the goat's milk protein identified as a feedback inhibitor of lactation (FIL). Immunization was by three treatments during the declining stage of lactation. 2. When antibodies to FIL were consistently detected in milk (in response to the third treatment), the rate of decline in milk secretion was significantly reduced compared with sham-immunized controls. Such a response was not apparent with the first two treatments when serum but not milk titres of anti-FIL were raised. 3. When one gland of immunized goats was switched (after the third immunization) from twice- to once-daily milking, the ipsilateral decrease in the rate of milk secretion was reduced significantly compared with sham-immunized goats. 4. The results are compatible with the hypothesis that the autocrine agent FIL acts during milk accumulation as an inhibitor of milk secretion.

Apoptosis in lactating and involuting mouse mammary tissue demonstrated by nick-end DNA labelling.

Mammary involution after cessation of milk removal is associated with extensive loss of secretory epithelial cells. Ultrastructural changes and the appearance of oligonucleosomal DNA laddering in ethidium bromide-stained gels indicates that cell loss during involution occurs by apoptosis. In this study, a technique for nick end-labelling of genomic DNA with radiolabelled deoxynucleotide has been used to monitor the induction of programmed cell death in mice after litter removal at peak lactation. This technique proved more sensitive than conventional ethidium bromide staining, and results suggested that apoptosis was induced rapidly by milk stasis, before extensive tissue re-modelling had begun. Oligonucleosomal DNA laddering on agarose gels was detected within 24 h of milk stasis, and increased progressively for at least 4 days. Nick-end labelling also detected laddering before litter removal, suggesting that programmed cell death is a normal feature of the lactating tissue. The DNA end-labelling technique was also adapted for in situ visualisation of apoptotic cells in tissue sections. By this criterion, apoptotic cells were identified in both the secretory epithelium lining the alveoli of the gland and, increasingly with prolonged milk stasis, amongst those sloughed into the alveolar lumen. The results demonstrate the utility of these techniques for study of mammary cell death and suggest that, whilst apoptosis is rapidly induced by milk stasis, it is also a normal physiological event in the lactating mammary gland.

Autocrine regulation of milk secretion by a protein in milk.

Frequency or completeness of milk removal from the lactating mammary gland regulates the rate of milk secretion by a mechanism which is local, chemical and inhibitory in nature. Screening of goat's milk proteins in rabbit mammary explant cultures identified a single whey protein of M(r) 7600 able to inhibit synthesis of milk constituents. The active whey protein, which we term FIL (Feedback inhibitor of Lactation), also decreased milk secretion temporarily when introduced into a mammary gland of lactating goats. FIL was synthesized by primary cultures of goat mammary epithelial cells, and was secreted vectorially together with other milk proteins. N-terminal amino acid sequencing indicated that it is a hitherto unknown protein. The evidence indicates that local regulation of milk secretion by milk removal is through autocrine feedback inhibition by this milk protein.

Inhibition of constitutive protein secretion from lactating mouse mammary epithelial cells by FIL (feedback inhibitor of lactation), a secreted milk protein.

The effect of a protein feedback inhibitor of lactation (FIL) on casein synthesis and secretion was examined using isolated acini from lactating mouse mammary gland. As previously found, FIL partially inhibited protein synthesis but produced an additional inhibition of constitutive casein secretion. The inhibition of synthesis and secretion showed similar dose-dependency and the inhibition was fully reversible. Constitutive secretion of pre-formed protein was inhibited by FIL in a pulse-chase protocol, indicating that the inhibitor regulated protein secretion by reducing protein movement through the secretory pathway independently of any initial inhibition of synthesis. Regulated exocytosis was not inhibited since casein release due to elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ concentration by the ionophore ionomycin was unaffected. Brefeldin A, which is known to block ER-to-Golgi transport, also inhibited both protein synthesis and secretion in mammary cells. The action of FIL on synthesis and secretion and previously described actions on casein degradation would be consistent with a block at an early stage in the secretory pathway. In support of this idea FIL treatment was found to result in vesiculation and swelling of the endoplasmic reticulum. These data provide evidence for a novel control of a constitutive secretory pathway by a physiological extracellular regulatory protein.

Regulation of intracellular casein degradation by secreted milk proteins.

Intracellular degradation of newly synthesised casein was measured by a pulse-chase method in freshly prepared goat mammary explants. After incubation in medium containing L-[5-3H]proline, explants were washed and cultured again in unlabelled medium containing 5 mM proline; at intervals up to 24 h the amount of radiolabel incorporated in casein was measured. Tissue was obtained in week 33 of lactation after goats had been milked incompletely in one gland (the test gland) for 24 weeks; the contra-lateral (control) gland was milked normally. In explants from the control gland, casein was not degraded during or after secretion: L-[5-3H]proline incorporated in casein increased to a maximum value which was maintained through the chase period. For four out of five goats, explants from the test gland showed a decrease in total [3H]casein radiolabel at 0-4 h of the chase, indicating that a proportion of casein was degraded during secretion. Intracellular casein degradation was also observed when control gland explants were cultured in chase medium containing a goat whey fraction known to inhibit casein production and milk secretion (Wilde, C.J. et al., (1987) Biochem. J. 242, 285-288). This suggests that the greater volume of residual milk left by incomplete milking reduced secretory efficiency, rendering casein susceptible to intracellular degradation, and that this occurred through the action of a secreted milk constituent, which acts as a chemical feedback inhibitor of milk secretion.

Autocrine regulation of casein turnover in goat mammary explants.

Local feedback control of milk protein secretion was investigated in goat mammary explants by measuring degradation of newly synthesized casein in the presence of a goat milk whey fraction. Reduced net synthesis of [3H]casein in the presence of the milk fraction was due, at least in part, to its degradation during secretion, suggesting that this process is under autocrine regulation.

Feed-back inhibition of milk secretion: the effect of a fraction of goat milk on milk yield and composition.

A milk fraction containing whey proteins of 10-30 kDa was injected into one mammary gland of lactating goats via the teat canal. This fraction produced a temporary dose-dependent reduction in milk yield in the treated gland; the milk yield of the other gland, which received an equal volume of carrier solution, was not affected. Injection of a second fraction, containing whey proteins of greater than 30 kDa, affected milk secretion only at high doses, and this effect was not wholly specific to the treated gland. The 10-30 kDa fraction and the greater than 30 kDa fraction produced similar transient changes in the concentrations of several ions and lactose in milk of the treated gland, but not in that of the untreated gland. These data indicate that a milk constituent present in the 10-30 kDa whey inhibits milk secretion in a temporary and reversible manner. The results are discussed in relation to regulation of milk secretion through local feedback inhibition.