Musculoskeletal ultrasound: a technical and historical perspective.

During the past four decades, musculoskeletal ultrasound has become popular as an imaging modality due to its low cost, accessibility, and lack of ionizing radiation. The development of ultrasound technology was possible in large part due to concomitant advances in both solid-state electronics and signal processing. The invention of the transistor and digital computer in the late 1940s was integral in its development. Moore's prediction that the number of microprocessors on a chip would grow exponentially, resulting in progressive miniaturization in chip design and therefore increased computational power, added to these capabilities. The development of musculoskeletal ultrasound has paralleled technical advances in diagnostic ultrasound. The appearance of a large variety of transducer capabilities and rapid image processing along with the ability to assess vascularity and tissue properties has expanded and continues to expand the role of musculoskeletal ultrasound. It should also be noted that these developments have in large part been due to a number of individuals who had the insight to see the potential applications of this developing technology to a host of relevant clinical musculoskeletal problems. Exquisite high-resolution images of both deep and small superficial musculoskeletal anatomy, assessment of vascularity on a capillary level and tissue mechanical properties can be obtained. Ultrasound has also been recognized as the method of choice to perform a large variety of interventional procedures. A brief review of these technical developments, the timeline over which these improvements occurred, and the impact on musculoskeletal ultrasound is presented below.

Plantar tendons of the foot: MR imaging and US.

Tendon disorders along the plantar aspect of the foot may lead to significant symptoms but are often clinically misdiagnosed. Familiarity with the normal anatomy of the plantar tendons and its appearance at magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and ultrasonography (US) is essential for recognizing plantar tendon disorders. At MR imaging, the course of the plantar tendons is optimally visualized with dedicated imaging of the midfoot and forefoot. This imaging should include short-axis images obtained perpendicular to the long axis of the metatarsal shafts, which allows true cross-sectional evaluation of the plantar tendons. Normal plantar tendons appear as low-signal-intensity structures with all MR sequences. At US, accurate evaluation of the tendons requires that the ultrasound beam be perpendicular to the tendon. The normal tendon appears as a compact linear band of echogenic tissue that contains a fine, mixed hypoechoic and hyperechoic internal fibrillar pattern. Tendon injuries can be grouped into six major categories: tendinosis, peritendinosis, tenosynovitis, entrapment, rupture, and instability (subluxation or dislocation) and can be well assessed with both MR imaging and US. The radiologist plays an important role in the diagnosis of plantar tendon disorders, and recognizing their imaging appearances at MR imaging and US is essential.

US and MR imaging of the extensor compartment of the ankle.

Injuries to the extensor compartment of the ankle are uncommon and often are overlooked or misinterpreted at clinical presentation. Ultrasonography (US) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging play a critical role in the diagnosis and evaluation of these injuries. US is a dynamic, quick, cost-effective imaging method for assessing ankle extensor compartment injuries as an alternative or adjunct to MR imaging. MR imaging provides multiplanar cross-sectional delineation of regional anatomic structures and also can be used to assess the predisposing cause, estimate the extent of injury, and aid in preoperative planning for requisite surgical repair. The spectrum of pathologic conditions affecting the ankle extensor compartment ranges from tendinosis secondary to degenerative, inflammatory, or depositional disease to traumatic tendon or retinacular rupture and entrapment neuropathy. Major components of the ankle extensor compartment at risk for injury include the anterior tibial, extensor hallucis longus, and extensor digitorum longus tendons; the extensor retinacular mechanism; and the anterior tarsal tunnel. Familiarity with the normal anatomic appearance and pathologic features of the ankle extensor compartment at US and MR imaging as well as potential imaging pitfalls is critical for accurate injury evaluation.