Biomechanics of the anterior cruciate ligament under simulated molecular degradation.

Injuries to the knee anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) are common, with a known but poorly understood association with intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors. Some of these factors are enzymatically or mechanically mediated, creating acute focal injuries that may cause significant ligament damage. Understanding the relationship between the basic molecular structure and external loading of the ACL requires a hierarchical connection between the two levels. In the present study, a multi-domain frame was developed connecting the molecular dynamics of the collagen networks to the continuum mechanics of the ACL. The model was used to elucidate the effect of the two possible collagen degradation mechanisms on the aggregate ACL behaviour. Results indicated that collagen content and ACL stiffness were reduced significantly, regardless of the degradation mechanism. Furthermore, the volumetric degradation at the molecular level had a devastating effect on the mechanical behaviour of the ACL when it was compared with the superficial degradation. ACL damage initiation and propagation were clearly influenced by collagen degradation. To summarise, the new insights provided by the predicted results revealed the significance of the collagen network structural integrity to the aggregate mechanical response of the ACL and, hence, underlined the biomechanical factors that may help develop an engineering-based approach towards improving the therapeutic intervention for ACL pathologies.

3D active-passive response of human knee joint in gait is markedly altered when simulated as a planar 2D joint.

Musculoskeletal models of the lower extremity make a number of important assumptions when attempting to estimate muscle forces and tibiofemoral compartmental loads in activities such as gait. The knee is commonly idealized as a planar 2D joint in the sagittal plane with no consideration of motions and equilibrium in remaining planes. With muscle forces predicted, the static equilibrium in the frontal plane is then used to estimate compartmental loads neglecting also joint passive resistance and assuming condylar contact centers. We aimed here to comprehensively investigate the effects of such assumptions on predicted results. While simulating gait and using a hybrid lower extremity model that incorporates a detailed validated 3D finite element model of the knee joint, analyses are repeated with out-of-sagittal plane rotations and moment equilibrium equations neglected (2D model) and tibial compartmental forces estimated using equilibrium in the frontal plane while disregarding passive resistance and assuming fixed contact centers (1D model). Large unbalanced out-of-sagittal plane moments reaching peaks of 30 Nm abduction moment and 12 Nm internal moment at 25 % stance period are computed that are overlooked in the 2D model. Consideration of the knee as a planar 2D joint substantially diminishes muscle forces, anterior cruciate ligament force and tibiofemoral contact forces/stresses when compared to the 3D reference model. Total tibiofemoral contact force peaks at 25 % stance at 4.2 BW in the 3D model that drops to 3.0 BW in the 2D model. The location of contact centers on each plateau also noticeably alters (by as much as 5 mm). Tibiofemoral contact forces further change when the location of contact centers on each plateau is fixed. Results highlight the importance of accurate simulation of 3D motions and equilibrium equations as well as passive joint properties and contact centers.

Role of gastrocnemius activation in knee joint biomechanics: gastrocnemius acts as an ACL antagonist.

Gastrocnemius is a premier muscle crossing the knee, but its role in knee biomechanics and on the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) remains less clear when compared to hamstrings and quadriceps. The effect of changes in gastrocnemius force at late stance when it peaks on the knee joint response and ACL force was initially investigated using a lower extremity musculoskeletal model driven by gait kinematics-kinetics. The tibiofemoral joint under isolated isometric contraction of gastrocnemius was subsequently analyzed at different force levels and flexion angles (0°-90°). Changes in gastrocnemius force at late stance markedly influenced hamstrings forces. Gastrocnemius acted as ACL antagonist by substantially increasing its force. Simulations under isolated contraction of gastrocnemius confirmed this role at all flexion angles, in particular, at extreme knee flexion angles (0° and 90°). Constraint on varus/valgus rotations substantially decreased this effect. Although hamstrings and gastrocnemius are both knee joint flexors, they play opposite roles in respectively protecting or loading ACL. Although the quadriceps is also recognized as antagonist of ACL, at larger joint flexion and in contrast to quadriceps, activity in gastrocnemius substantially increased ACL forces (anteromedial bundle). The fact that gastrocnemius is an antagonist of ACL should help in effective prevention and management of ACL injuries.

Alterations in knee contact forces and centers in stance phase of gait: A detailed lower extremity musculoskeletal model.

Evaluation of contact forces-centers of the tibiofemoral joint in gait has crucial biomechanical and pathological consequences. It involves however difficulties and limitations in in vitro cadaver and in vivo imaging studies. The goal is to estimate total contact forces (CF) and location of contact centers (CC) on the medial and lateral plateaus using results computed by a validated finite element model simulating the stance phase of gait for normal as well as osteoarthritis, varus-valgus and posterior tibial slope altered subjects. Using foregoing contact results, six methods commonly used in the literature are also applied to estimate and compare locations of CC at 6 periods of stance phase (0%, 5%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%). TF joint contact forces are greater on the lateral plateau very early in stance and on the medial plateau thereafter during 25-100% stance periods. Large excursions in the location of CC (>17mm), especially on the medial plateau in the mediolateral direction, are computed. Various reported models estimate quite different CCs with much greater variations (~15mm) in the mediolateral direction on both plateaus. Compared to our accurately computed CCs taken as the gold standard, the centroid of contact area algorithm yielded least differences (except in the mediolateral direction on the medial plateau at ~5mm) whereas the contact point and weighted center of proximity algorithms resulted overall in greatest differences. Large movements in the location of CC should be considered when attempting to estimate TF compartmental contact forces in gait.

Knee joint passive stiffness and moment in sagittal and frontal planes markedly increase with compression.

Knee joints are subject to large compression forces in daily activities. Due to artefact moments and instability under large compression loads, biomechanical studies impose additional constraints to circumvent the compression position-dependency in response. To quantify the effect of compression on passive knee moment resistance and stiffness, two validated finite element models of the tibiofemoral (TF) joint, one refined with depth-dependent fibril-reinforced cartilage and the other less refined with homogeneous isotropic cartilage, are used. The unconstrained TF joint response in sagittal and frontal planes is investigated at different flexion angles (0°, 15°, 30° and 45°) up to 1800 N compression preloads. The compression is applied at a novel joint mechanical balance point (MBP) identified as a point at which the compression does not cause any coupled rotations in sagittal and frontal planes. The MBP of the unconstrained joint is located at the lateral plateau in small compressions and shifts medially towards the inter-compartmental area at larger compression forces. The compression force substantially increases the joint moment-bearing capacities and instantaneous angular rigidities in both frontal and sagittal planes. The varus-valgus laxities diminish with compression preloads despite concomitant substantial reductions in collateral ligament forces. While the angular rigidity would enhance the joint stability, the augmented passive moment resistance under compression preloads plays a role in supporting external moments and should as such be considered in the knee joint musculoskeletal models.

Steeper posterior tibial slope markedly increases ACL force in both active gait and passive knee joint under compression.

The role of the posterior tibial slope (PTS) in anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) risk of injury has been supported by many imaging studies but refuted by some in vitro works. The current investigation was carried out to compute the effect of ±5(o) change in PTS on knee joint biomechanics in general and ACL force/strain in particular. Two validated finite element (FE) models of the knee joint were employed; one active lower extremity musculoskeletal model including a complex FE model of the knee joint driven by in vivo kinematics/kinetics collected in gait of asymptomatic subjects, and the other its isolated unconstrained passive tibiofemoral (TF) joint considered under 1400 N compression at four different knee flexion angles (0°-45°). In the TF model, the compression force was applied at the joint mechanical balance point causing no rotations in sagittal and frontal planes. Changes in PTS moderately affected muscle forces and joint contact forces at mid-stance period. Both active (at mid-stance) and passive (at all flexion angles) models showed a substantial increase in the anterior tibial translation and ACL force as PTS increased with reverse trends as PTS decreased. In the active model of gait at mid-stance, ACL force increased by 75% (from 181 N to 317 N) in steeper PTS but decreased by 44% (to 102 N) in flatter PTS. The posterolateral bundle of ACL carried the load at smaller flexion angles with a shift to its anteromedial bundle as flexion increased. In accordance with earlier imaging studies, greater PTS is a major risk factor for ACL rupture especially in activities involving large compression forces.

Partitioning of knee joint internal forces in gait is dictated by the knee adduction angle and not by the knee adduction moment.

Medial knee osteoarthritis is a debilitating disease. Surgical and conservative interventions are performed to manage its progression via reduction of load on the medial compartment or equivalently its surrogate measure, the external adduction moment. However, some studies have questioned a correlation between the medial load and adduction moment. Using a musculoskeletal model of the lower extremity driven by kinematics-kinetics of asymptomatic subjects at gait midstance, we aim here to quantify the relative effects of changes in the knee adduction angle versus changes in the adduction moment on the joint response and medial/lateral load partitioning. The reference adduction rotation of 1.6° is altered by ±1.5° to 3.1° and 0.1° or the knee reference adduction moment of 17Nm is varied by ±50% to 25.5Nm and 8.5Nm. Quadriceps, hamstrings and tibiofemoral contact forces substantially increased as adduction angle dropped and diminished as it increased. The medial/lateral ratio of contact forces slightly altered by changes in the adduction moment but a larger adduction rotation hugely increased this ratio from 8.8 to a 90 while in contrast a smaller adduction rotation yielded a more uniform distribution. If the aim in an intervention is to diminish the medial contact force and medial/lateral load ratio, a drop of 1.5° in adduction angle is much more effective (causing respectively 12% and 80% decreases) than a reduction of 50% in the adduction moment (causing respectively 4% and 13% decreases). Substantial role of changes in adduction angle is due to the associated alterations in joint nonlinear passive resistance. These findings explain the poor correlation between knee adduction moment and tibiofemoral compartment loading during gait suggesting that the internal load partitioning is dictated by the joint adduction angle.

Evaluation of knee joint muscle forces and tissue stresses-strains during gait in severe OA versus normal subjects.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the leading cause of pain and disability in the elderly with the knee being the most affected weight bearing joint. We used a musculoskeletal biomechanical model of the lower extremity including a detailed validated knee joint finite element model to compute lower extremity muscle forces and knee joint stresses-strains during the stance phase of gait. The model was driven by gait data on OA patients, and results were compared with those of the same model driven by data on normal controls. Additional analyses were performed with altered cartilage-menisci properties to evaluate the effects of deterioration during OA. In OA patients compared to normal subjects, muscle forces dropped at nearly all stance periods except mid-stance. Force in the anterior cruciate ligament remained overall the same. Total contact forces-stresses deceased by about 25%. Alterations in properties due to OA had negligible effects on muscle forces, but increased contact areas and cartilage strains and reduced contact pressures. Reductions in contact stresses and increases in tissue strains and transfer of load via menisci are partly due to the altered kinetics-kinematics of gait and partly due to deterioration in cartilage-menisci properties in OA patients.

Consideration of equilibrium equations at the hip joint alongside those at the knee and ankle joints has mixed effects on knee joint response during gait.

Accurate estimation of muscle forces during daily activities such as walking is critical for a reliable evaluation of loads on the knee joint. To evaluate knee joint muscle forces, the importance of the inclusion of the hip joint alongside the knee and ankle joints when treating the equilibrium equations remains yet unknown. An iterative kinematics-driven finite element model of the knee joint that accounts for the synergy between passive structures and active musculature is employed. The knee joint muscle forces and biomechanical response are predicted and compared with our earlier results that did not account for moment equilibrium equations at the hip joint. This study indicates that inclusion of the hip joint in the optimization along the knee and ankle joints only slightly (<10%) influences total forces in quadriceps, lateral hamstrings and medial hamstrings. As a consequence, even smaller differences are found in predicted ligament forces, contact forces/areas, and cartilage stresses/strains during the stance phase of gait. The distribution of total forces between the uni- and bi-articular muscle components in quadriceps and in lateral hamstrings; however, substantially alter at different stance phases.

Computational biodynamics of human knee joint in gait: from muscle forces to cartilage stresses.

Using a validated finite element model of the intact knee joint we aim to compute muscle forces and joint response in the stance phase of gait. The model is driven by reported in vivo kinematics-kinetics data and ground reaction forces in asymptomatic subjects. Cartilage layers and menisci are simulated as depth-dependent tissues with collagen fibril networks. A simplified model with less refined mesh and isotropic depth-independent cartilage is also considered to investigate the effect of model accuracy on results. Muscle forces and joint detailed response are computed following an iterative procedure yielding results that satisfy kinematics/kinetics constraints while accounting at deformed configurations for muscle forces and passive properties. Predictions confirm that muscle forces and joint response alter substantially during the stance phase and that a simplified joint model may accurately be used to estimate muscle forces but not necessarily contact forces/areas, tissue stresses/strains, and ligament forces. Predictions are in general agreement with results of earlier studies. Performing the analyses at 6 periods from beginning to the end (0%, 5%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%), hamstrings forces peaked at 5%, quadriceps forces at 25% whereas gastrocnemius forces at 75%. ACL Force reached its maximum of 343 N at 25% and decreased thereafter. Contact forces reached maximum at 5%, 25% and 75% periods with the medial compartment carrying a major portion of load and experiencing larger relative movements and cartilage strains. Much smaller contact stresses were computed at the patellofemoral joint. This novel iterative kinematics-driven model is promising for the joint analysis in altered conditions.

Knee joint biomechanics in closed-kinetic-chain exercises.

Effective management of knee joint disorders demands appropriate rehabilitation programs to restore function while strengthening muscles. Excessive stresses in cartilage/menisci and forces in ligaments should be avoided to not exacerbate joint condition after an injury or reconstruction. Using a validated 3D nonlinear finite element model, detailed biomechanics of the entire joint in closed-kinetic-chain squat exercises are investigated at different flexion angles, weights in hands, femur-tibia orientations and coactivity in hamstrings. Predictions are in agreement with results of earlier studies. Estimation of small forces in cruciate ligaments advocates the use of squat exercises at all joint angles and external loads. In contrast, large contact stresses, especially at the patellofemoral joint, that approach cartilage failure threshold in compression suggest avoiding squatting at greater flexion angles, joint moments and weights in hands. Current results are helpful in comprehensive evaluation and design of effective exercise therapies and trainings with minimal risk to various components.