Food contamination from packaging material with special focus on the Bisphenol-A.

Additives, such as bisphenol A (BPA) that are added to packaging material to enhance functionality may migrate into food products creating a concern for food safety. BPA has been linked to various chronic diseases, such as: diabetes, obesity, prostate cancer, impaired thyroid function, and several other metabolic disorders. To safeguard consumers, BPA migration limits have been defined by regulatory bodies. However, it is important to address the underlying factors and mechanisms so that they can be optimized in order to minimize BPA migration. In this review, we determine the relative importance of the factors, i.e. temperature, contact time, pH, food composition, storage time and temperature, package type, cleaning, and aging, and packaging damage that promote BPA migration in foods. Packaging material seems to be the key source of BPA and the temperature (applied during food production, storage, can sterilization and cleaning processes) was the critical driver influencing BPA migration.

Nutritional and functional perspectives of pseudocereals.

An increase in the consumption of carbohydrate-rich cereals over past few decades has led to increased metabolic disorders in population. This nutritional imbalance in diets may be corrected by substituting cereal grains with pseudocereals that are richer in high-quality proteins, dietary fibers, unsaturated fats, and bioactive compounds (e.g., polyphenols and phytosterols) as compared to cereal grains. These nutrients have been associated with numerous health benefits, such as hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, anti-cancer, and hepatoprotective properties, and benefits against obesity and diabetes. In this review, the nutritional composition and health benefits of quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat are compared against wheat, maize, and rice. Subsequently, the processing treatments applied to quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat and their applications into food products are discussed. This is relevant since there is substantial market potential for both pseudocereals and functional foods formulated with pseudocereals. Despite clear benefits, the current progress is slowed down by the fact that the cultivation of these pseudocereals is limited to its native regions. Therefore, to meet the global needs, it is imperative to support worldwide cultivation of these nutrient-rich pseudocereals.

Production, optimization, scale up and characterization of polyhydoxyalkanoates copolymers utilizing dairy processing waste.

The microbial biotransformation using low-cost feedstock to produce biopolymers (degradable), an alternative to petrochemical-based synthesis plastics (non-degradable), can be a beneficial approach towards sustainable development. In this study, the dairy industry processes waste (whey) is used in polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) copolymer production. Initial screening suggested that Ralstonia eutropha produced higher PHA as compared to Bacillus megaterium. A central composite rotatable design-based optimization using two process variables (amino acid and tween-80) concentration remarkably influenced PHA co-polymer production under physiological conditions of pH (7), temperature (37 °C), and agitation rate of 150 rpm. High polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) mass fraction yield of 69.3% was observed as compared to predicted yield of 62.8% from deproteinized whey as feed. The combination of tryptophan (50 mg L-1) and tween-80 (3 mL-1) enhanced R. eutropha mass gain to 6.80 g L-1 with PHB contents of 4.71 g L-1. Further, characterization of PHA and its copolymers was done by ESI-MS, FTIR, and TEM. On upscaling up to 3.0 L, the PHA contents and yields were noted as quite similar by R. eutropha. This study demonstrates that dairy waste processing waste can be potentially utilized as inexpensive feed for producing high content of biopolymers to develop a sustainable system of waste management.

Microbial bioformulation: a microbial assisted biostimulating fertilization technique for sustainable agriculture.

Addressing the pressing issues of increased food demand, declining crop productivity under varying agroclimatic conditions, and the deteriorating soil health resulting from the overuse of agricultural chemicals, requires innovative and effective strategies for the present era. Microbial bioformulation technology is a revolutionary, and eco-friendly alternative to agrochemicals that paves the way for sustainable agriculture. This technology harnesses the power of potential microbial strains and their cell-free filtrate possessing specific properties, such as phosphorus, potassium, and zinc solubilization, nitrogen fixation, siderophore production, and pathogen protection. The application of microbial bioformulations offers several remarkable advantages, including its sustainable nature, plant probiotic properties, and long-term viability, positioning it as a promising technology for the future of agriculture. To maintain the survival and viability of microbial strains, diverse carrier materials are employed to provide essential nourishment and support. Various carrier materials with their unique pros and cons are available, and choosing the most appropriate one is a key consideration, as it substantially extends the shelf life of microbial cells and maintains the overall quality of the bioinoculants. An exemplary modern bioformulation technology involves immobilizing microbial cells and utilizing cell-free filters to preserve the efficacy of bioinoculants, showcasing cutting-edge progress in this field. Moreover, the effective delivery of bioformulations in agricultural fields is another critical aspect to improve their overall efficiency. Proper and suitable application of microbial formulations is essential to boost soil fertility, preserve the soil's microbial ecology, enhance soil nutrition, and support crop physiological and biochemical processes, leading to increased yields in a sustainable manner while reducing reliance on expensive and toxic agrochemicals. This manuscript centers on exploring microbial bioformulations and their carrier materials, providing insights into the selection criteria, the development process of bioformulations, precautions, and best practices for various agricultural lands. The potential of bioformulations in promoting plant growth and defense against pathogens and diseases, while addressing biosafety concerns, is also a focal point of this study.

Growth Kinetics of Prodigiosin (Food Color) Produced by Novel Serratia marcescens bhu prodig Under Submerged Fermentation (SMF).

Prodigiosin is a promising food color due to its antibacterial, antimalarial, antimycotic characteristics, immunomodulating, and antitumor activities. Novel prodigiosin producing strain isolated from sugarcane field soil of Banaras Hindu University, India, characterized as Serratia marcescens bhu prodig by 16 sRNA. The effect of carbon, nitrogen source, and physical parameters (pH and temperature) on pigment yield was studied. The highest amount of pigment produced, which was 800.95 ± 0.05 mg/L, was detected when sorbitol and peptone were used as nitrogen and carbon source with pH 7 at 30 °C. The optimized condition scale-up in a bioreactor with a working capacity of 3.0 L, gave maximum pigment yield of 825 ± 0.05 mg/L with µ (Maximum specific growth rate), Yp/x, which represents the product yield coefficient, and Yp/s, which signifies the specific product yield coefficient and productivity of 0.3/h, 0.62, 0.80, and 0.02 g/L/h, respectively, after 72 h of cultivation in submerged fermentation (SMF). The isolated pigment was characterized as prodigiosin by the analysis of spectral data and GC-MS. The mass spectrophotometry investigation characterized pigment as 4-methoxy-5(5 methyl-4-pentyl-2H-pyrrol-2-ylidene)- 2,2-bipyrrole ring structure. The GC-MS chromatogram showed m/z of 323, representing prodigiosin. The prodigiosin yield and productivity obtained in the current finding were higher than in previous reports.

Nutritional and Functional New Perspectives and Potential Health Benefits of Quinoa and Chia Seeds.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) and chia (Salvia hispanica) are essential traditional crops with excellent nutritional properties. Quinoa is known for its high and good quality protein content and nine essential amino acids vital for an individual's development and growth, whereas chia seeds contain high dietary fiber content, calories, lipids, minerals (calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, and zinc), and vitamins (A and B complex). Chia seeds are also known for their presence of a high amount of omega-3 fatty acids. Both quinoa and chia seeds are gluten-free and provide medicinal properties due to bioactive compounds, which help combat various chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic diseases such as cancer. Quinoa seeds possess phenolic compounds, particularly kaempferol, which can help prevent cancer. Many food products can be developed by fortifying quinoa and chia seeds in different concentrations to enhance their nutritional profile, such as extruded snacks, meat products, etc. Furthermore, it highlights the value-added products that can be developed by including quinoa and chia seeds, alone and in combination. This review focused on the recent development in quinoa and chia seeds nutritional, bioactive properties, and processing for potential human health and therapeutic applications.

Valorization of lignin for the production of vanillin by Bacillus aryabhattai NCIM 5503.

Coconut coir waste is a rich lignocellulosic biomass. The coconut coir waste generated from temples is resistant to natural degradation, and its accumulation causes environmental pollution. Ferulic acid, a vanillin precursor, was extracted from the coconut coir waste by hydro-distillation extraction. The extracted ferulic acid was used for vanillin synthesis by Bacillus aryabhattai NCIM 5503 under submerged fermentation. In the present study, the Taguchi DOE (design of experiment) software was used to optimize the fermentation process, which resulted in a 1.3 fold increase in vanillin yield (640.96 ± 0.02 mg/L), as compared to the unoptimized yield of 495.96 ± 0.01 mg/L. The optimized media for enhanced vanillin production comprised; fructose 0.75 % (w/v), beef extract 1 % (w/v), pH 9, temperature 30℃, agitation speed 100 rpm, trace metal solution 1 % (v/v), and ferulic acid 2 % (v/v). The results show that the commercial production of vanillin can be envisioned using coconut coir waste.

Herbs-derived phytochemicals - a boon for combating COVID-19.

The recent pandemic, the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), has put the whole world on alert with the threat of the virus that targets the human respiratory system. The disease has affected more than 633.6 million people globally and caused 6.5 million deaths since November 18, 2022. About 12.94 billion people are vaccinated as of November 18, 2022. Due to varied climatic conditions, SARS-CoV-2 has shown rapid mutation in recent years. Because of the lack of appropriate therapeutic drugs, inadequate diagnostic mechanisms, life-supporting medical facilities, and lack of awareness, the spread of SARS-CoV-2 has become severe. Thus, the most efficient strategy to control this disease is to follow preventive measures. However, treating SARS-CoV-2 cases in Wuhan using traditional Chinese herbs has set an example to show how traditional health can contribute to treating this novel virus. Medicinal herbs are known for their antimicrobial, antibacterial, antiviral, immunomodulatory, immunoadjuvant, and anti-inflammatory properties. These medicinal herbs are used during cooking and consumed regularly worldwide. In this view, medicinal herbs gained evident attention. These herbs can serve as a potential and economical remedy for combating the lethal effects of COVID-19. The present review highlights the phytochemicals and their mechanisms of action in preventing SARS-CoV-2. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42535-023-00601-9.

Scope, nutritional aspects, technology, and consumer preferences toward seafood alternatives.

Sustainability, human health, and animal welfare are three broad areas that pose a greater impact on mankind. The increased consumption of animal-based foods such as fish or seafood has threatened the ecosystem due to rising greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, diseases, and consumption of toxic metals contained in fish by cause of water pollution. This has led to increased awareness among consumers to adopt seafood alternatives for a sustainable future. It is also not well known whether consumers are ready to switch from traditional seafood towards a safer and sustainable seafood alternative. This encourages the in-depth study of the scope of seafood alternatives in consumers' food choices. This study also highlights the nutritional perspectives and technologies involved in the development of seafood alternatives along with the future outlook for a greener planet.

Food fortification strategies to deliver nutrients for the management of iron deficiency anaemia.

A rising trend in the global prevalence of anaemia is still prevailing. To combat micronutrient deficiencies, World Health Organisation/Food Agriculture Organisation (2006) guidelines recommended four chief strategies - supplementation, fortification, nutrition education and dietary diversity. Of the four strategies, food fortification has been considered as the most efficacious and economical approach. However, it is the directives themselves that highlight two major bottlenecks associated with conventional fortification - uniform dissemination of the fortifier in food vehicle that mostly include staple foods, and internal and external compliance evaluation of fortification regulations and standards by the producers. As a result, researchers envisaged a new strategy - Food-to-food fortification that complements conventional fortification. This strategy involves fortification of food vehicles with nutrient-rich food-based fortifiers. The major advantage of utilising food-based fortifiers is that they hold the potential of enhancing the bioavailability of the fortified food and providing additional nutrients and thus, resulting in dietary diversification. It also facilitates the utilisation of underutilised crops as food-based fortifiers. Underutilised crops have been recognised as potential beneficial food source accounting to their nutritional, ecological, and fiscal benefits. This review paper delves into the strengths and shortcomings of conventional iron fortification. It delineates the concept of food-to-food fortification, while precisely discussing about the best practices to be followed to address the possible challenges associated with this strategy. It also promotes the utilisation of underutilised iron rich foods to develop fortified foods and avert global food insecurity. Furthermore, it provides a summary of the studies conducted around the world to develop fortified foods using iron compounds and iron-rich foods, and to investigate their efficacy in managing iron deficiency anaemia.

Ectopic expression of finger millet calmodulin confers drought and salinity tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana.

KEY MESSAGE: Overexpression of finger millet calmodulin imparts drought and salt tolerance in plants. Drought and salinity are major environmental stresses which affect crop productivity and therefore are major hindrance in feeding growing population world-wide. Calcium (Ca2+) signaling plays a crucial role during the plant's response to these stress stimuli. Calmodulin (CaM), a crucial Ca2+sensor, is involved in transducing the signal downstream in various physiological, developmental and stress responses by modulating a plethora of target proteins. The role of CaM has been well established in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana for regulating various developmental processes, stress signaling and ion transport. In the current study, we investigate the CaM of Eleusine coracana (common name finger millet, known especially for its drought tolerance and superior Ca2+ content). In-silico analysis showed that Eleusine CaM (EcCaM) has greater similarity to rice CaM as compared to Arabidopsis CaM due to the presence of highly conserved four EF-hand domains. To decipher the in-planta function of EcCaM, we have adopted the gain-of-function approach by generating the 35S::EcCaM over-expression transgenic in Arabidopsis. Overexpression of EcCaM in Arabidopsis makes the plant tolerant to polyethylene glycol (PEG) induced drought and salt stress (NaCl) as demonstrated by post-germination based phenotypic assay, ion leakage, MDA and proline estimation, ROS detection under stressed and normal conditions. Moreover, EcCaM overexpression leads to hypersensitivity toward exogenously applied ABA at the seed germination stage. These findings reveal that EcCaM mediates tolerance to drought and salinity stress. Also, our results indicate that EcCaM is involved in modulating ABA signaling. Summarizing our results, we report for the first time that EcCaM is involved in modulating plants response to stress and this information can be used for the generation of future-ready crops that can tolerate a wide range of abiotic stresses.

Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates using dairy processing waste - A review.

Bio-plastics are eco-friendly biopolymers finding tremendous application in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Bio-plastics have suitable physicochemical, mechanical properties, and do not cause any type of hazardous pollution upon disposal but have a high production cost. This can be minimized by screening potential bio-polymers producing strains, selecting inexpensive raw material, optimized cultivation conditions, and upstream processing. These bio-plastics specifically microbial-produced bio-polymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) find application in food industries as packaging material owing to their desirable water barrier and gas permeability properties. The present review deals with the production, recovery, purification, characterization, and applications of PHAs. This is a comprehensive first review will also focus on different strategies adopted for efficient PHA production using dairy processing waste, its biosynthetic mechanism, metabolic engineering, kinetic aspects, and also biodegradability testing at the lab and pilot plant level. In addition to that, the authors will be emphasizing more on novel PHAs nanocomposites synthesis strategies and their commercial applicability.

The red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum: A model for host-microbiome interactions.

A large body of ongoing research focuses on understanding the mechanisms and processes underlying host-microbiome interactions, and predicting their ecological and evolutionary outcomes. To draw general conclusions about such interactions and understand how they are established, we must synthesize information from a diverse set of species. We analysed the microbiome of an important insect model-the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum-which is a widespread generalist pest of stored cereals. The beetles complete their entire life cycle in flour, which thus serves multiple functions: habitat, food, and a source of microbes. We determined key factors that shape the T. castaneum microbiome, established protocols to manipulate it, and tested its consequences for host fitness. We show that the T. castaneum microbiome is derived from flour-acquired microbes, and varies as a function of (flour) resource and beetle density. Beetles gain multiple fitness benefits from their microbiome, such as higher fecundity, egg survival, and lifespan; and reduced cannibalism. In contrast, the microbiome has a limited effect on development rate, and does not enhance pathogen resistance. Importantly, the benefits are derived only from microbes in the ancestral resource (wheat flour), and not from novel resources such as finger millet, sorghum, and corn. Notably, the microbiome is not essential for beetle survival and development under any of the tested conditions. Thus, the red flour beetle is a tractable model system to understand the ecology, evolution and mechanisms of host-microbiome interactions, while closely mimicking the host species' natural niche.

An Omics Study of Iron and Zinc Homeostasis in Finger Millet: Biofortified Foods for Micronutrient Deficiency in an Era of Climate Change?

The future of food and sustainability of the staple food crops are of utmost importance in the 21st century. Micronutrient deficiency, for example, in iron and zinc, is a common cause of human diseases. Mineral content of the staple food crops has therefore crosscutting importance for food engineering and planetary health. Finger millet, a staple food of agricultural importance worldwide, is rich in iron and zinc, and an ideal model to study the prospects of biofortified foods in times of climate change. We report here a multiomics study of the iron and zinc homeostasis in the finger millet. We identified and characterized 15 candidate genes potentially involved in iron and zinc homeostasis pathways in the finger millet. Structural and functional annotation of the candidate genes revealed a high similarity index with their respective homologs (Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays, Hordeum vulgare, and Setaria italica). Transcriptome-wide expression analysis showed that genes involved in uptake and translocation of iron and zinc are highly expressed in the GP-1 genotype, while those involved in bioavailability of iron and zinc are expressed more in the GP-45 genotype of the finger millet. In conclusion, finger millet, being a stress-resilient crop, utilizes a combination of strategies in iron and zinc homeostasis pathway, which appear to play an important role in food crop acquisition of iron and zinc, despite environmentally limiting conditions. These data offer molecular insights on iron and zinc accumulation and paves the way for new strategies toward staple food crop with mineral biofortification.

Transcriptome wide identification and characterization of regulatory genes involved in EAA metabolism and validation through expression analysis in different developmental stages of finger millet spikes.

Finger millet is a rich source of seed storage proteins (SSPs). Various regulatory genes play an important role to maintain the quality and accumulation of SSPs in crop seeds. In the present study, nine regulatory genes of EAAs metabolic pathway, i.e., aspartate kinase, homoserine dehydrogenase, threonine synthase, threonine dehydratase, dihydrodipicolinate synthase, cystathionine γ synthase, anthranilate synthase, acetolactate synthase and lysine 2-oxoglutarato reductase/saccharopine dehydrogenase (LOR/SD) were identified from the transcriptomic data of developing spikes of two finger millet genotypes, i.e., GP-45 and GP-1. Results of sequence alignment search and motif/domain analysis showed high similarity of nucleotide sequences of identified regulatory genes with their respective homologs in rice. Results of promoter analysis revealed the presence of various cis-regulatory elements, like nitrogen responsive cis-elements (O2-site and GCN4), light responsive cis-elements, and stress responsive cis-elements. The presence of nine regulatory genes identified from the transcriptomic data of GP-45 and GP-1 was further confirmed by real time expression analysis in high and low protein containing genotypes, i.e., GE-3885 and GE-1437. Results of real time expression analysis showed significantly higher expression (p ≤ 0.01) of regulatory genes in GE-3885 rather than GE-1437 under control and treatment condition. Crude protein content of GE-3885 was found to be significantly higher (p ≤ 0.01) in comparison to GE-1437 under control condition, while under treatment condition GE-1437 was found to be more responsive to KNO3 treatment rather than GE-3885.

The M. tuberculosis HAD phosphatase (Rv3042c) interacts with host proteins and is inhibited by Clofazimine.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis codes for a HAD-phosphatase, Rv3042c (MtSerB2), that has earlier been characterized as a metabolic enzyme. Here we demonstrate that MtSerB2 is secreted into the cytosol of infected macrophages and is found in bronchoalveolar lavage samples of tuberculosis patients. MtSerB2 induces significant cytoskeleton rearrangements through cofilin activation and affects the expression of genes that regulate actin dynamics. It specifically interacts with HSP90, HSP70 and HSP27 that block apoptotic pathways and not with other HSPs. It actively dephosphorylates MAPK-p38 and NF-kappa B p65 that play crucial roles in inflammatory and immune responses. This in turn leads to down-regulation of Interleukin 8, a chemotactic and inflammatory cytokine. Finally, during evaluation of inhibitors against MtSerB2 we found that Clofazimine, a drug being evaluated for XDR and MDR tuberculosis, inhibits MtSerB2 phosphatase activity and reverses the above effects and interactions with host proteins. Overall, the study identifies that MtSerB2 has new functions that might help the pathogen to evade the host's immune response.

Mutational analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis lysine ɛ-aminotransferase and inhibitor co-crystal structures, reveals distinct binding modes.

Lysine ɛ-aminotransferase (LAT) converts lysine to α-aminoadipate-δ-semialdehyde in a PLP-mediated reaction. We mutated active-site T330, N328 and E243, and structurally rationalized their properties. T330A and T330S mutants cannot bind PLP and are inactive. N328A although inactive, binds to PLP. E243A retains activity, but binds α-ketoglutarate in a different conformation. We had earlier identified 2-aminomethyl piperidine derivative as a LAT inhibitor. The co-crystal structure reveals that it mimics binding of C5 substrates and exhibits two binding modes. E243, that shields R422 in the apo enzyme, exhibits conformational changes to permit the binding of the inhibitor in one of the binding modes. Structure-based analysis of bound water in the active site suggests optimization strategies for synthesis of improved inhibitors.

Characterization of HmqF, a protein involved in the biosynthesis of unsaturated quinolones produced by Burkholderia thailandensis.

The opportunistic pathogen Burkholderia thailandensis produces a number of structurally similar unsaturated quinolones involved in quorum sensing. However, little is known about the biosynthesis of these unsaturated quinolones. In this study, we have characterized the starting point of the biosynthesis of unsaturated quinolone molecules produced in B. thailandensis. We have shown by using in vitro enzymology, liquid chromatography, and mass spectrometry that protein HmqF is involved in the biosynthesis of unsaturated quinolones produced by B. thailandensis. HmqF consists of three domains: an adenylation domain (A domain), a dehydrogenase domain (DH domain), and an acyl carrier domain (ACP). The three domains (A, DH, and ACP) were cloned and expressed individually in Escherichia coli, and their reactivity was studied using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry (MS) based assays. Our in vitro studies show that the A domain catalyzes ATP-dependent activation of medium chain (C6-C14) fatty acids without activation by coenzyme A (CoA). Results from competition assays are consistent with decanoic acid being the preferred substrate. Incubation of the ACP domain with 4'-phosphopantetheine transferase and CoA led to the formation of phosphopantetheinylated ACP (Ppant-ACP). In a Ppant ejection assay using tandem MS (MS/MS), a mass consistent with the mass of a cyclic variant of dephosphorylated Ppant was detected. We further demonstrated that Ppant-ACP could be loaded with medium chain fatty acids in the presence of ATP and the A domain. MS analysis was consistent with the formation of Ppant-ACP thiol esters of the fatty acids. MS/MS Ppant ejection experiments confirmed the loss of 2H in samples of fatty acid-loaded Ppant-ACP in the presence of the DH domain. HPLC analysis of benzyl amide ligation products allowed us to conclude that dehydrogenation produced trans-ß,γ-unsaturation in the fatty acid chains. Our results are in good agreement with naturally observed quinolone molecules produced by B. thailandensis, which predominately produce nine-carbon trans-ß,γ-unsaturated alkyl chain quinolone molecules.

Control of the release of freely diffusing molecules in single-cell electroporation.

Single-cell electroporation using an electrolyte-filled capillary is an emerging technique for transient pore formation in adherent cells. Because adherent cells do not have a simple and consistent shape and because the electric field emanating from the tip of the capillary is inhomogeneous, the Schwan equation based on spherical cells in homogeneous electrical fields does not apply. We sought to determine experimental and cell parameters that influence the outcome of a single-cell electroporation experiment. A549 cells were exposed to the thiol-reactive dye Thioglo-1, leading to green fluorescence from intracellular thiol adducts. Electroporation causes a decrease with time of the intracellular fluorescence intensity of Thioglo-1-loaded cells from diffusive loss of thiol adducts. The transient curves thus obtained are well-described by a simple model originally developed by Puc et al. We find that the final fluorescence following electroporation is related to the capillary tip-to-cell distance and cell size (specifically, 2(A/pi)(1/2) where A is the area of the cell's image in pixels. This quantity is the diameter if the image is a circle). In separate experiments, the relationship obtained can be used to control the final fluorescence following electroporation by adjusting the tip-to-cell distance based on cell size. The relationship was applied successfully to A549 as well as DU 145 and PC-3 cells. Finally, F-tests show that the variability in the final fluorescence (following electroporation) is decreased when the tip-to-cell distance is controlled according to the derived relationship in comparison to experiments in which the tip-cell distance is a constant irrespective of cell size.