Developmental consistency in the use of subphonemic information during real-time sentence processing.

Apparently homophonous sequences contain acoustic information that differentiates their meanings (Gahl, 2008; Quené, 1992). Adults use this information to segment embedded homophones (e.g., ham vs. hamster; Salverda, et al., 2003) in fluent speech. Whether children also do this is unknown, as is whether listeners of any age use such information to disambiguate lexical homophones. In two experiments, 48 English-speaking adults and 48 English-speaking 7- to- 10-year-old children viewed sets of four images and heard sentences containing phonemically identical sequences while their eye movements were continuously tracked. As in previous research, adults showed greater fixation of target meanings when the acoustic properties of an embedded homophone were consistent with the target than when they were consistent with the alternate interpretation. They did not show this difference for lexical homophones. Children's behavior was similar to that of adults, indicating that the use of subphonemic information in homophone processing is consistent over development.

Change detection for real-world objects in perihand space.

Recent evidence has demonstrated that observers experience visual-processing biases in perihand space that may be tied to the hands' relevance for grasping actions. Our previous work suggested that when the hands are positioned to afford a power-grasp action, observers show increased temporal sensitivity that could aid with fast and forceful action, whereas when the hands are instead at the ready to perform a precision-grasp action, observers show enhanced spatial sensitivity that benefits delicate and detail-oriented actions. In the present investigation we seek to extend these previous findings by examining how object affordances may interact with hand positioning to shape visual biases in perihand space. Across three experiments, we examined how long participants took to perform a change detection task on photos of real objects, while we manipulated hand position (near/far from display), grasp posture (power/precision), and change type (orientation/identity). Participants viewed objects that afforded either a power grasp or a precision grasp, or were ungraspable. Although we were unable to uncover evidence of altered vision in perihand space in our first experiment, mirroring previous findings, in Experiments 2 and 3 our participants showed grasp-dependent biases near the hands when detecting changes to target objects that afforded a power grasp. Interestingly, ungraspable target objects were not subject to the same perihand space biases. Taken together, our results suggest that the influence of hand position on change detection performance is mediated not only by the hands' grasp posture, but also by a target object's affordances for grasping.

The early processing of metaphors and similes: Evidence from eye movements.

This eye movement study examined how people read nominal metaphors and similes in order to investigate how the surface form, or wording, of these expressions affected early processing. Participants silently read metaphors (knowledge is a river) and similes (knowledge is like a river). The identical words were used in the topic-vehicle pair (knowledge-river) in both conditions. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated longer reading times and a higher proportion of regressions in metaphors than in similes. Familiarity modulated later metaphor effects in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2. Reading ability did not modulate the metaphor effects in Experiment 2. Results indicate that readers revised their initial interpretation of metaphors before moving on to read new text. This suggests that readers did not initially hold figurative interpretations of apt nominal metaphors that are somewhat familiar. Metaphor interpretation may be fast, but it is not easy.

Phonological activation of word meanings in grade 5 readers.

Three experiments examined the role of phonology in the activation of word meanings in Grade 5 students. In Experiment 1, homophone and spelling control errors were embedded in a story context and participants performed a proofreading task as they read for meaning. For both good and poor readers, more homophone errors went undetected than spelling control errors. In Experiments 2 and 3, homophone and spelling control errors were in sentence contexts. Experiment 2 used an online sentence verification task, and found that both good and poor readers were less accurate when sentences contained a homophone error than a spelling control error. Furthermore, a difference between the 2 types of sentences was observed even when participants were concurrently performing an articulation task. In Experiment 3, initial reading times were shorter on homophone errors than on spelling controls, and participants were less likely to make a regression from homophone errors than spelling controls. These experiments provide clear evidence that phonology makes an important contribution to the activation of word meanings in Grade 5 readers.

Auditory and motion metaphors have different scalp distributions: an ERP study.

While many links have been established between sensory-motor words used literally (kick the ball) and sensory-motor regions of the brain, it is less clear whether metaphorically used words (kick the habit) also show such signs of "embodiment." Additionally, not much is known about the timing or nature of the connection between language and sensory-motor neural processing. We used stimuli divided into three figurativeness conditions-literal, metaphor, and anomalous-and two modality conditions-auditory (Her limousine was a privileged snort) and motion (The editorial was a brass-knuckle punch). The conditions were matched on a large number of potentially confounding factors including cloze probability. The electroencephalographic response to the final word of each sentence was measured at 64 electrode sites on the scalp of 22 participants and event-related potentials (ERPs) calculated. Analysis revealed greater amplitudes for metaphorical than literal sentences in both 350-500 ms and 500-650 ms timeframes. Results supported the possibility of different neural substrates for motion and auditory sentences. Greater differences for motion sentences were seen in the left posterior and left central electrode sites than elsewhere on the scalp. These findings are consistent with a sensory-motor neural categorization of language and with the integration of modal and amodal information during the N400 and P600 timeframes.