Clinical Trajectories of Comorbidity Associated With Military-Sustained Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Pre- and Post-Injury.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: In the US military, traumatic brain injury (TBI) is of distinct importance, at home and in the deployed setting, and is considered a "signature injury of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq." Since 2000, an estimated 468 424 service members (SMs) have been diagnosed with at least one TBI. We examined the clinical trajectories of a group of 18 comorbidities before and after a military-sustained mild TBI (mTBI). METHODS: Without making assumptions on causality, a group of 18 conditions often co-occurring with mTBI were identified through literature review and TBI subject matter workgroup consensus. Using data from Military Health System Data Repository, we identified SMs whose first lifetime military mTBI occurred between October 1, 2016, and October 30, 2019. Correlation analyses were used to determine the linear relationship between comorbidities prior to and after mTBI diagnosis. Changes in the period prevalence of comorbidities was calculated. RESULTS: We identified 42 018 SMs with a first lifetime military mTBI, of which 77.6% had at least one comorbidity. Identified SMs were mostly young (46.1% ages 18-24 years), male (81.4%), and White (64.1%). Up to 180 days prior to an mTBI, the most frequently identified conditions were sleep-related conditions (21.7%), headaches (19.4%), posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSDs) (17.8%), anxiety disorders (11.3%), and cervicogenic disorders (eg, cervicalgia) (10.9%). In the period following mTBI diagnosis, the prevalence of diagnosed conditions increased, especially for visual disturbances (327.2%), cognitive conditions (313.9%), vestibular conditions (192.6%), those related to headache (152.2%), and hearing (72.9%). Sleep-related conditions showed moderate positive correlation with a group of co-occurring conditions, led by cognitive conditions (ϕc = 0.50), anxiety disorders (ϕc = 0.42), PTSDs (ϕc =0.43), and headaches and related conditions (ϕc = 0.38). CONCLUSION: Results indicate that caring for SMs with mild TBI requires a holistic approach, one that considers the complex nature of SM conditions, prior to sustaining their mTBI, as well as after injury. We found a complex correlation of conditions that suggest SMs with mTBI are undergoing a multifaceted experience, one that may require the development of a targeted multidimensional clinical practice recommendation and practice.

Trends in Traumatic Brain Injury Among U.S. Service Members Deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan, 2002-2016.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health issue for service members deployed and is more common in recent conflicts; however, a thorough understanding of risk factors and trends is not well described. This study aims to characterize the epidemiology of TBI in U.S. service members and the potential impacts of changes in policy, care, equipment, and tactics over the 15 years studied. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of U.S. Department of Defense Trauma Registry data (2002-2016) was performed on service members treated for TBI at Role 3 medical treatment facilities in Iraq and Afghanistan. Risk factors and trends in TBI were examined in 2021 using Joinpoint regression and logistic regression. RESULTS: Nearly one third of 29,735 injured service members (32.4%) reaching Role 3 medical treatment facilities had TBI. The majority sustained mild (75.8%), followed by moderate (11.6%) and severe (10.6%) TBI. TBI proportion was higher in males than in females (32.6% vs 25.3%; p<0.001), in Afghanistan than in Iraq (43.8% vs 25.5%; p<0.001), and in battle than in nonbattle (38.6% vs 21.9%; p<0.001). Patients with moderate or severe TBI were more likely to have polytrauma (p<0.001). TBI proportion increased over time, primarily in mild TBI (p=0.02), slightly in moderate TBI (p=0.04), and most rapidly between 2005 and 2011, with a 2.48% annual increase. CONCLUSIONS: One third of injured service members at Role 3 medical treatment facilities experienced TBI. Findings suggest that additional preventive measures may decrease TBI frequency and severity. Clinical guidelines for field management of mild TBI may reduce the burden on evacuation and hospital systems. Additional capabilities may be needed for military field hospitals.

Prevalence of Comorbidities in Active and Reserve Service Members Pre and Post Traumatic Brain Injury, 2017-2019.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the prevalence of comorbidities associated with traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients among active and reserve service members in the U.S. Military. METHODS: Active and reserve SMs diagnosed with an incident TBI from January 2017 to October 2019 were selected. Nineteen comorbidities associated with TBI as identified in the literature and by clinical subject matter experts were described in this article. Each patient's medical encounters were evaluated from 6 months before to 2 years following the initial TBI diagnoses date in the Military Data Repository, if data were available. Time-to-event analyses were conducted to assess the cumulative prevalence over time of each comorbidity to the incident TBI diagnosis. RESULTS: We identified 47,299 TBI patients, of which most were mild (88.8%), followed by moderate (10.5%), severe (0.5%), and of penetrating (0.2%) TBI severity. Two years from the initial TBI diagnoses, the top five comorbidities within our cohort were cognitive disorders (51.9%), sleep disorders (45.0%), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; 36.0%), emotional disorders (22.7%), and anxiety disorders (22.6%) across severity groups. Cognitive, sleep, PTSD, and emotional disorders were the top comorbidities seen within each TBI severity group. Comorbidities increased pre-TBI to post-TBI; the more severe the TBI, the greater the prevalence of associated comorbidities. CONCLUSION: A large proportion of our TBI patients are afflicted with comorbidities, particularly post-TBI, indicating many have a complex profile. The military health system should continue tracking comorbidities associated with TBI within the U.S. Military and devise clinical practices that acknowledge the complexity of the TBI patient.

Clusters of conditions among US service members diagnosed with mild TBI from 2017 through 2019.

Background: Many US Military Service Members (SMs) newly diagnosed with mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) may exhibit a range of symptoms and comorbidities, making for a complex patient profile that challenges clinicians and healthcare administrators. This study used clustering techniques to determine if conditions co-occurred as clusters among those newly injured with mTBI and up to one year post-injury. Methods: We measured the co-occurrence of 41 conditions among SMs diagnosed with mTBI within the acute phase, one or three months post-mTBI diagnosis, and chronic phase, one year post-mTBI diagnosis. Conditions were identified from the literature, clinical subject matter experts, and mTBI care guidelines. The presence of conditions were based on medical encounters recorded within the military health care data system. Through a two-step approach, we identified clusters. Principal component analysis (PCA) determined the optimal number of clusters, and hierarchical cluster analyses (HCA) identified the composition of clusters. Further, we explored how the composition of these clusters changed over time. Results: Of the 42,018 SMs with mTBI, 23,478 (55.9%) had at least one condition of interest one-month post-injury, 26,831 (63.9%) three months post-injury, and 29,860 (71.1%) one year post injury. Across these three periods, six clusters were identified. One cluster included vision, cognitive, ear, and sleep disorders that occurred one month, three months, and one year post-injury. Another subgroup included psychological conditions such as anxiety, depression, PTSD, and other emotional symptoms that co-occurred in the acute and chronic phases post-injury. Nausea and vomiting symptoms clustered with cervicogenic symptoms one month post-injury, but later shifted to other clusters. Vestibular disorders clustered with sleep disorders and headache disorders one-month post-injury and included numbness and neuropathic pain one year post-injury. Substance abuse symptoms, alcohol disorders, and suicidal attempt clustered one year post-injury in a fifth cluster. Speech disorders co-occurred with headache disorders one month and one year post-injury to form a sixth cluster. Conclusion: PCA and HCA identified six distinct subgroups among newly diagnosed mTBI patients during the acute and chronic phases post-injury. These subgroups may help clinicians better understand the complex profile of SMs newly diagnosed with mTBI.

Estimating Repeat Traumatic Brain Injury in the U.S. Military, 2015-2017.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant health issue among deployed and non-deployed U.S. military service members (SMs). Since 2000, an estimated 413,858 SMs have been diagnosed with at least one TBI. Due to the difficulty in distinguishing new incident TBIs from follow-up TBI-related medical encounters in the Military Health System (MHS), the official TBI case definition also includes an incidence rule considering an individual an incident case only once per lifetime. We sought to examine patterns in medical records of SMs with at least one TBI encounter, in an effort to identify repeat TBIs in individual SMs and to estimate the incidence of repeat TBIs within the study cohort as a whole. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using the official DoD TBI case definition, we obtained a list of SMs who sustained their first active duty TBI between October 1, 2015, and September 30, 2017. We identified the SM's diagnosing encounter (index TBI). Subsequently, we identified patterns associated with diagnosing medical encounters, as opposed to encounters associated with follow-up TBI care. We flagged external cause of injury records and the presence of TBI-related symptom codes at the diagnosing encounter. Traumatic brain injury-related symptoms included memory issues, alteration of cognition, hearing loss, vertigo, headache, anxiety, depression, emotional lability, weakness, insomnia, and vision disturbance. Data discovery results were shared with a group of clinicians at the Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center, and the list of variables was further refined based on clinical expertise. Subsequently, we conducted stepwise logistic regression, and best fitting model was used to create a probability score to be applied to all TBI-related medical encounters. To validate the accuracy of the model-derived probability score, a stratified random sample of medical records was reviewed by trained clinician. At the 0.5 probability cutoff point, the model had an area under the curve of 0.69. We applied the final model portability scores to all identified TBI encounters to estimate the incidence of repeat TBI within the cohort. RESULTS: Between October 1, 2015, and September 30, 2017, we identified 36,440 SMs and their first lifetime TBI encounter. Study follow-up period was 2 years. Predictors of repeat TBI (rTBI) encounters included the presence of TBI diagnosis extender codes "A" (odds ratio [OR] = 4.67, 95% CI 2.15-10.12); W and V series codes (OR = 4.05, 95% CI 2.05-7.95 and OR = 2.86, 95% CI 1.40-5.83, respectively); patient's disposition at home/quarters; and admission or immediate referral (OR = 3.67, 95% CI 1.79-7.51). Number of diagnosis codes in patient's medical record was inversely associated with a repeat TBI encounter (OR = 0.84, 95% CI 0.76-0.96). Applying model-derived probability score onto identified medical records, we estimate that 804 unique SMs sustained an rTBI during the follow-up period, yielding a rate of 260 rTBIs per 10,000 person-years or approximately 2.32% of SMs annually. CONCLUSION: Probability scores based on statistical modeling can provide reasonable estimates of repeat incidences of TBI using medical billing data when formerly only the first TBI was thought to be measurable. With 100% sensitivity and 69% specificity, application of these models can inform estimates of repeat TBI across the MHS. This effort shows initial success if estimating repeat TBI, and further modeling work is encouraged to increase the predictive characteristics of the models as these efforts show promise in estimating repeat TBI across the MHS.

Epidemiology, patterns of care and outcomes of traumatic brain injury in deployed military settings: Implications for future military operations.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is prevalent and highly morbid among Service Members. A better understanding of TBI epidemiology, outcomes, and care patterns in deployed settings could inform potential approaches to improve TBI diagnosis and management. METHODS: A retrospective cohort analysis of Service Members who sustained a TBI in deployed settings between 2001 and 2018 was conducted. Among individuals hospitalized with TBI, we compared the demographic characteristics, mechanism of injury, injury type, and severity between combat and noncombat injuries. We compared diagnostic tests and procedures, evacuation patterns, return to duty rates and days in care between individuals with concussion and those with severe TBI. RESULTS: There were 46,309 service members with TBI and 9,412 who were hospitalized; of those hospitalized, 55% (4,343) had isolated concussion and 9% (796) had severe TBI, of whom 17% (132/796) had multiple injuries. Overall mortality was 2% and ranged from 0.1% for isolated concussion to 18% for severe TBI. The vast majority of TBI were evacuated by rotary wing to role 3 or higher, including those with isolated concussion. As compared with severe TBI, individuals with isolated concussion had fewer diagnostic or surgical procedures performed. Only 6% of service members with severe TBI were able to return to duty as compared with 54% of those with isolated concussion. Traumatic brain injury resulted in 123,677 lost duty days; individuals with isolated concussion spent a median of 2 days in care and those with severe TBI spent a median of 17 days in care and a median of 6 days in the intensive care unit. CONCLUSION: While most TBI in the deployed setting are mild, TBI is frequently associated with hospitalization and multiple injuries. Overtriage of mild TBI is common. Improved TBI capabilities applicable to forward settings will be critical to the success of future multidomain operations with limitations in air superiority. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic and Epidemiologic; Level III.

Estimates of Long-Term Disability Among US Service Members With Traumatic Brain Injuries.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant health issue in the US military. The purpose of this study was to estimate the probability of long-term disability among hospitalized service members (SMs) with TBIs, using the South Carolina Traumatic Brain Injury and Follow-up Registry (SCTBIFR) model developed on civilian hospitalized patients. METHODS: We identified military patients in military or civilian hospitals or theater level 3 to 5 military treatment facilities (MTFs) whose first TBI occurred between October 1, 2013, and September 30, 2015. TBI-related disability at 1-year post-hospital discharge was estimated using regression coefficients from the SCTBIFR. RESULTS: Among the identified 4877 SMs, an estimated 65.6% of SMs with severe TBI, 56.2% with penetrating TBI, 31.4% with moderate TBI, and 12.0% with mild TBI are predicted to develop long-term disability. TBI patients identified at theater level 4 and 5 MTFs had an average long-term disability rate of 56.9% and 61.1%, respectively. In total, we estimate that 25.2% of all SMs hospitalized with TBI will develop long-term disability. CONCLUSION: Applying SCTBIFR long-term probability estimates to US SMs with TBIs provides useful disability estimates to inform providers and health systems on the likelihood that particular subgroups of TBI patients will require continued support and long-term care.

Traumatic Brain Injury Following Military Deployment: Evaluation of Diagnosis and Cause of Injury.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of delayed traumatic brain injury (TBI) diagnosis and cause of injury that resulted in a TBI diagnosis after military deployment. DESIGN: Medical record notes were reviewed in 2016 from a random sample of 1150 US military service members who had their first-time deployment in 2011 and likely sustained a TBI. Location and cause of the injury were extracted from the progress note for analysis. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Active-duty US military service members who received an International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision code for a TBI diagnosis in a military facility. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Presence of TBI, location of injury, cause of injury, and time of diagnosis with respect to deployment. RESULTS: The odds of being diagnosed with a deployment-related TBI were 8 times higher during the first 4 weeks upon return from deployment than the subsequent 32 weeks. The likelihood of diagnosing a deployment-sustained TBI during weeks 5 to 32 was 2 times higher than during 33 to 76 weeks following return from deployment. The proportion of deployment-related TBI diagnoses decreased with time following return from deployment but remained above 40% during weeks 33 to 76. Service branch, gender, race, occupation, and time between TBI diagnosis and return from deployment were significant predictors of deployment-related TBIs. Moving motor vehicle, sports, parachute, and being struck by objects were the top causes of injury in garrison (nondeployed setting), whereas blast produced the majority (66%) of all causes of injuries that resulted in a TBI in the deployed setting. CONCLUSION: The increased incidence rate of a TBI diagnosis following deployment can be attributed to delayed diagnosis of TBI sustained from injuries during deployment. TBIs sustained during deployment can be diagnosed beyond the initial 4 weeks after return from deployment and may continue up to 76 weeks following return from deployment.

Incidence of Traumatic Brain Injury in the U.S. Military, 2010-2014.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant health issue that affects U.S. military service members (SM) at home and in combat deployments. We estimated the TBI incidence rate in the deployed and non-deployed setting between 2010 and 2014 and identified subgroups with elevated rates for prevention efforts. METHODS: Retrospective population-based study of all active duty U.S. military SM that sustained a first active duty TBI diagnosis between January 2010 and December 2014 collected and analyzed in 2017. Using Armed Forces Health Surveillance Branch data we calculated the Mantel-Haenszel (MH) standardized TBI incidence rate in the deployed and non-deployed setting, adjusting for service and demographic factors. RESULTS: From 2010 to 2014, the MH standardized incidence rate for deployed SMs was 3,265 TBIs per 100 thousand p-yrs (95% CI: 3,222-3,307) and 1,705.2 (95% CI: 1,694.0-1,716.5) for non-deployed SMs. The youngest deployed male Army soldiers, those ages 17-24, especially White and Hispanic soldiers, had the highest TBI incidence rate (IR) of 5,748.7 (95% CI: 5,585.8-5,916.4) and 5,010.3 (95% CI: 4,647.5-5,401.4), respectively. The IR for all branches was 1,972.6 (95% CI: 1,959.5-1,985.7) and 724.0 (95% CI: 714.9-733.0) for Reserve/Guard Service members. CONCLUSIONS: Across all years, Marines and Army Soldiers experience the highest rates of injury with deployed SMs having elevated IRs of TBI. The TBI IR among deployed SMs was 91% higher than among those in the non-deployed setting, due to continued exposures to combat. Deployed Reserve/Guard component SMs seem to have an above average rate, a finding with implications for training and prevention.

Continuum of the United States military's traumatic brain injury care: adjusting to the changing battlefield.

Over the past 8 years, advances in the US Military Health System (MHS) have led to extensive changes in the way combat casualty care is provided to deployed service members with a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Changes include the application of cutting-edge Clinical Practice Guidelines, use of pioneering technologies, and advances in evacuation procedures. Compared with previous engagements, current operations occur on a much smaller scale, and more frequently in austere environments, such that effective medical support is increasingly challenging. In this paper, the authors describe key aspects of the current continuum of TBI care in the US military, from the point of injury through rehabilitation, with an emphasis on how emerging technologies and evidence-based Clinical Practice Guidelines assist MHS clinicians with providing the best clinical care possible in the changing battlefield.

Role of Department of Defense Policies in Identifying Traumatic Brain Injuries Among Deployed US Service Members, 2001-2016.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the role of Department of Defense policies in identifying theater-sustained traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of 48 172 US military service members who sustained their first lifetime TBIs between 2001 and 2016 while deployed to Afghanistan or Iraq. We used multivariable negative binomial models to examine the changes in TBI incidence rates following the introduction of Department of Defense policies. RESULTS: Two Army policies encouraging TBI reporting were associated with an increase of 251% and 97% in TBIs identified following their implementation, respectively. Among airmen, the introduction of TBI-specific screening questions to the Post-Deployment Health Assessment was associated with a 78% increase in reported TBIs. The 2010 Department of Defense Directive Type Memorandum 09-033 was associated with another increase of 80% in the likelihood of being identified with a TBI among soldiers, a 51% increase among sailors, and a 124% increase among Marines. CONCLUSIONS: Department of Defense and service-specific policies introduced between 2006 and 2013 significantly increased the number of battlefield TBIs identified, successfully improving the longstanding problem of underreporting of TBIs.

Dementia and motor vehicle crash hospitalizations: Role of physician reporting laws.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of physician reporting laws and state licensing requirements on crash hospitalizations among drivers with dementia. METHODS: A study of drivers hospitalized because of vehicle crashes, identified from the State Inpatient Databases of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the effect of mandatory physician reporting of at-risk drivers and state licensing requirement on the prevalence of dementia among hospitalized drivers. RESULTS: Physician reporting laws, mandated or legally protected, were not associated with a lower likelihood of dementia among crash hospitalized drivers. Hospitalized drivers aged 60 to 69 years in states with in-person renewal laws were 37% to 38% less likely to have dementia than drivers in other states and 23% to 28% less likely in states with vision testing at in-person renewal. Road testing was associated with lower dementia prevalence among hospitalized drivers aged 80 years and older. CONCLUSION: Vision testing at in-person renewal and in-person renewal requirements were significantly related with a lower prevalence of dementia in hospitalized older adults among drivers aged 60 to 69 years. Road testing was significantly associated with a lower proportion of dementia among hospitalized drivers aged 80 years and older. Mandatory physician driver reporting laws lacked any independent association with prevalence of dementia among hospitalized drivers.

Mandatory Physician Reporting of At-Risk Drivers: The Older Driver Example.

Purpose of the Study: In a number of states, physicians are mandated by state law to report at-risk drivers to licensing authorities. Often these patients are older adult drivers who may exhibit unsafe driving behaviors, have functional/cognitive impairments, or are diagnosed with conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and/or seizure disorders. The hypothesis that mandatory physician reporting laws reduce the rate of crash-related hospitalizations among older adult drivers was tested. Design and Methods: Using retrospective data (2004-2009), this study identified 176,066 older driver crash-related hospitalizations, from the State Inpatient Databases. Three age-specific negative binomial generalized estimating equation models were used to estimate the effect of physician reporting laws on state's incidence rate of crash-related hospitalizations among older drivers. Results: No evidence was found for an independent association between mandatory physician reporting laws and a lower crash hospitalization rate among any of the age groups examined. The main predictor of interest, mandatory physician reporting, failed to explain any significant variation in crash hospitalization rates, when adjusting for other state-specific laws and characteristics. Vision testing at in-person license renewal was a significant predictor of lower crash hospitalization rate, ranging from incidence rate ratio of 0.77 (95% confidence interval 0.62-0.94) among 60- to 64-year olds to 0.83 (95% confidence interval 0.67-0.97) among 80- to 84-year olds. Implications: Physician reporting laws and age-based licensing requirements are often at odds with older driver's need to maintain independence. This study examines this balance and finds no evidence of the benefits of mandatory physician reporting requirements on driver crash hospitalizations, suggesting that physician mandates do not yet yield significant older driver safety benefits, possibly to the detriment of older driver's well-being and independence.

Interest in mental health care among patients making eVisits.

OBJECTIVES: The Internet allows patients opportunities for eVisits, in which a patient communicates electronically with a clinician who then makes a diagnosis and treatment recommendations. The status of mental health eVisits in these systems is still evolving. We examined features of mental health eVisits in a patient portal that did not explicitly provide an option for such care. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review of patient portal use. METHODS: Between April 2009 and mid-June 2012, over 2000 patients completed a total of 3601 eVisits through a patient portal at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. Although eVisits for mental health conditions were not explicitly offered, patients could choose an "other" option for the eVisit. We tracked diagnoses given by physicians in these "other" eVisits using Clinical Classification Software developed in the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project. RESULTS: Of 685 patients choosing the "other" option for their eVisit (23.9% of patients making eVisits), 13.4% received mental health diagnoses, primarily anxiety and depression disorders. These patients represented 4% of all patients making eVisits. They were younger (41.1 ± 12.4 vs 46.2 ± 13.2; P < .001) and more likely to be female (82.6% vs 71.1%; P = .017) than patients not receiving mental health diagnoses. It took physicians longer to respond to mental health eVisits (same day in 71% of diagnoses involving mental health but 79.0% in all other diagnoses, P = .054). CONCLUSIONS: Patients are interested in eVisits for mental health care. Protocols that allow prompt attention to common mental health concerns in eVisits may be needed.

Homophily and health behavior in social networks of older adults.

A common network phenomenon, homophily, involves developing relationships with others who are similar to you. The intent of this study was to determine if older adults' health behaviors were shared within social networks. We interviewed older adults from low-income senior housing (egos) on egocentric social network characteristics and key health behaviors for themselves and for named social ties (alters). Findings suggest strong effects for homophily, especially for those who smoked and were physically inactive. Public health interventions for older adults should consider the influence that social relationships have on personal health behaviors. Network-based interventions may be required.

Youth motorcycle-related brain injury by state helmet law type: United States, 2005-2007.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Twenty-seven states have youth-specific helmet laws even though such laws have been shown to decrease helmet use and increase youth mortality compared with all-age (universal) laws. Our goal was to quantify the impact of age-specific helmet laws on youth under age 20 hospitalized with traumatic brain injury (TBI). METHODS: Our cross-sectional ecological group analysis compared TBI proportions among US states with different helmet laws. We examined the following null hypothesis: If age-specific helmet laws are as effective as universal laws, there will be no difference in the proportion of hospitalized young motorcycle riders with TBI in the respective states. The data are derived from the 2005 to 2007 State Inpatient Databases of the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project. We examined data for 17 states with universal laws, 6 states with laws for ages <21, and 12 states with laws for children younger than 18 (9287 motorcycle injury discharges). RESULTS: In states with a <21 law, serious TBI among youth was 38% higher than in universal-law states. Motorcycle riders aged 12 to 17 in 18 helmet-law states had a higher proportion of serious/severe TBI and higher average Abbreviated Injury Scores for head-region injuries than riders from universal-law states. CONCLUSIONS: States with youth-specific laws had an increased risk of TBI that required hospitalization, serious and severe TBI, TBI-related disability, and in-hospital death among the youth they are supposed to protect. The only method known to keep motorcycle-helmet use high among youth is to adopt or maintain universal helmet laws.

Youth motorcycle-related hospitalizations and traumatic brain injuries in the United States in 2006.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives were to provide national injury and health care cost estimates for youth motorcycle injuries in traffic and nontraffic settings and to focus on the burden of serious motorcycle-related traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) in children and young adults. METHODS: The 2006 Kids' Inpatient Database is a sample of inpatient discharges for US patients <21 years of age from 38 states. This cross-sectional analysis of the 2006 Kids' Inpatient Database included comparisons of TBI versus non-TBI and traffic versus nontraffic motorcycle-related crashes for ages 12 to 20, with national estimates of hospital charges and costs, length of stay, severity, and long-term disability rates. RESULTS: Motorcycle-related crashes accounted for 5662 discharges (95% confidence interval: 5201-6122 discharges), which amounts to 3% of injury hospitalizations among youths and 5% of TBI diagnoses; two-thirds of cases were traffic-related, and one-third of patients sustained a TBI (1793 patients [95% confidence interval: 1631-1955 patients]). Among patients with TBIs, the overall probability of long-term disability was 24%. Patients with TBIs were 3.6 times more likely to be discharged to a rehabilitation facility and >10 times more likely to die in the hospital than were patients without TBIs. CONCLUSIONS: Motorcycle injuries are a substantial cause of youth injury hospitalizations. The large proportion, costs, and morbidity of TBI diagnoses in youth motorcycle crashes emphasize the need for effective crash prevention and head protection.