Ethephon-induced changes in antioxidants and phenolic compounds in anthocyanin-producing black carrot hairy root cultures.

Hairy root (HR) cultures are quickly evolving as a fundamental research tool and as a bio-based production system for secondary metabolites. In this study, an efficient protocol for establishment and elicitation of anthocyanin-producing HR cultures from black carrot was established. Taproot and hypocotyl explants of four carrot cultivars were transformed using wild-type Rhizobium rhizogenes. HR growth performance on plates was monitored to identify three fast-growing HR lines, two originating from root explants (lines NB-R and 43-R) and one from a hypocotyl explant (line 43-H). The HR biomass accumulated 25- to 30-fold in liquid media over a 4 week period. Nine anthocyanins and 24 hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives were identified and monitored using UPLC-PDA-TOF during HR growth. Adding ethephon, an ethylene-releasing compound, to the HR culture substantially increased the anthocyanin content by up to 82% in line 43-R and hydroxycinnamic acid concentrations by >20% in line NB-R. Moreover, the activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione S-transferase increased in the HRs in response to ethephon, which could be related to the functionality and compartmentalization of anthocyanins. These findings present black carrot HR cultures as a platform for the in vitro production of anthocyanins and antioxidants, and provide new insight into the regulation of secondary metabolism in black carrot.

Biotransformation of Flavokawains A, B, and C, Chalcones from Kava (Piper methysticum), by Human Liver Microsomes.

The in vitro metabolism of flavokawains A, B, and C (FKA, FKB, FKC), methoxylated chalcones from Piper methysticum, was examined using human liver microsomes. Phase I metabolism and phase II metabolism (glucuronidation) as well as combined phase I+II metabolism were studied. For identification and structure elucidation of microsomal metabolites, LC-HRESIMS and NMR techniques were applied. Major phase I metabolites were generated by demethylation in position C-4 or C-4' and hydroxylation predominantly in position C-4, yielding FKC as phase I metabolite of FKA and FKB, helichrysetin as metabolite of FKA and FKC, and cardamonin as metabolite of FKC. To an even greater extent, flavokawains were metabolized in the presence of uridine diphosphate (UDP) glucuronic acid by microsomal UDP-glucuronosyl transferases. For all flavokawains, monoglucuronides (FKA-2'-O-glucuronide, FKB-2'-O-glucuronide, FKC-2'-O-glucuronide, FKC-4-O-glucuronide) were found as major phase II metabolites. The dominance of generated glucuronides suggests a role of conjugated chalcones as potential active compounds in vivo.

Foetithiophenes C-F, thiophene derivatives from the roots of Ferula foetida.

CONTEXT: Ferula foetida Regel (Apiaceae) is an Iranian medicinal plant with various biological activities including antispasmodic and anthelmintic. OBJECTIVE: The sulfur compounds from the roots of F. foetida were isolated and characterized to test their cytotoxic and antimicrobial activities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The methanolic extract of the roots of F. foetida was fractionated using silica column chromatography. The components of each fraction were further purified using RP-HPLC. Their structures were elucidated by 1- and 2-D NMR spectroscopy as well as HREIMS. Their cytotoxic and antimicrobial activities were evaluated using Alamar Blue assay and broth microdilution method, respectively. RESULTS: Four new thiophene derivatives, namely foetithiophenes C-F (3-6), together with four known compounds, foetithiophenes A (1) and B (2), coniferaldehyde, and sinapic aldehyde, were isolated from the roots of F. foetida. Antimicrobial activities were observed in particular against the Gram-positive bacteria. The best antimicrobial activity was observed for compound 6 against B. cereus with a MIC value 50 µg/mL. The tested compounds did not show cytotoxic properties against MCF-7 and K562 cells. CONCLUSION: Four new thiophene derivatives including foetithiophenes C-F (3-6) were characterized from the roots of F. foetida. Foetithiophene F (6) exhibited the most potent activity against the Gram-positive bacteria B. cereus.

An α-acetoxy-tirucallic acid isomer inhibits Akt/mTOR signaling and induces oxidative stress in prostate cancer cells.

Here we provide evidence that αATA(8,24) (3α-acetyloxy-tir-8,24-dien-21-oic acid) inhibits Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. αATA(8,24) and other tirucallic acids were isolated from the acetylated extract of the oleo gum resin of Boswellia serrata to chemical homogeneity. Compared with related tirucallic acids, αATA(8,24) was the most potent inhibitor of the proliferation of androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, in prostate cancer xenografted onto chick chorioallantoic membranes. αATA(8,24) induced loss of cell membrane asymmetry, caspase-3 activation, and DNA fragmentation in vitro and in vivo. These effects were selective for cancer cells, because αATA(8,24) exerted no overt toxic effects on peripheral blood mononuclear cells or the chick embryo. At the molecular level, αATA(8,24) inhibited the Akt1 kinase activity. Prior to all biochemical signs of cellular dysfunction, αATA(8,24) induced inhibition of the Akt downstream target mTOR as indicated by dephosphorylation of S6K1. This event was followed by decreased expression of cell cycle regulators, such as cyclin D1, cyclin E, and cyclin B1, as well as cyclin-dependent kinases CDK4 and CDK2 and phosphoretinoblastoma protein, which led to inhibition of the cell-cycle progression. In agreement with the mTOR inhibition, αATA(8,24) and rapamycin increased the volume of acidic vesicular organelles. In contrast to rapamycin, αATA(8,24) destabilized lysosomal and mitochondrial membranes and induced reactive oxygen species production in cancer cells. The ability of αATA(8,24) to inhibit Akt/mTOR signaling and to induce simultaneously oxidative stress could be exploited for the development of novel antitumor therapeutics with a lower profile of toxic side effects.

Analysis of cannabinoids in laser-microdissected trichomes of medicinal Cannabis sativa using LCMS and cryogenic NMR.

Trichomes, especially the capitate-stalked glandular hairs, are well known as the main sites of cannabinoid and essential oil production of Cannabis sativa. In this study the distribution and density of various types of Cannabis sativa L. trichomes, have been investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Furthermore, glandular trichomes were isolated over the flowering period (8 weeks) by laser microdissection (LMD) and the cannabinoid profile analyzed by LCMS. Cannabinoids were detected in extracts of 25-143 collected cells of capitate-sessile and capitate stalked trichomes and separately in the gland (head) and the stem of the latter. Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid [THCA (1)], cannabidiolic acid [CBDA (2)], and cannabigerolic acid [CBGA (3)] were identified as most-abundant compounds in all analyzed samples while their decarboxylated derivatives, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC (4)], cannabidiol [CBD (5)], and cannabigerol [CBG (6)], co-detected in all samples, were present at significantly lower levels. Cannabichromene [CBC (8)] along with cannabinol (CBN (9)) were identified as minor compounds only in the samples of intact capitate-stalked trichomes and their heads harvested from 8-week old plants. Cryogenic nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) was used to confirm the occurrence of major cannabinoids, THCA (1) and CBDA (2), in capitate-stalked and capitate-sessile trichomes. Cryogenic NMR enabled the additional identification of cannabichromenic acid [CBCA (7)] in the dissected trichomes, which was not possible by LCMS as standard was not available. The hereby documented detection of metabolites in the stems of capitate-stalked trichomes indicates a complex biosynthesis and localization over the trichome cells forming the glandular secretion unit.

Tissue-specific distribution of secondary metabolites in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.).

Four different parts, hypocotyl and radicle (HR), inner cotyledon (IC), outer cotyledon (OC), seed coat and endosperm (SE), were sampled from mature rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) by laser microdissection. Subsequently, major secondary metabolites, glucosinolates and sinapine, as well as three minor ones, a cyclic spermidine conjugate and two flavonoids, representing different compound categories, were qualified and quantified in dissected samples by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection and mass spectrometry. No qualitative and quantitative difference of glucosinolates and sinapine was detected in embryo tissues (HR, IC and OC). On the other hand, the three minor compounds were observed to be distributed unevenly in different rapeseed tissues. The hypothetic biological functions of the distribution patterns of different secondary metabolites in rapeseed are discussed.

Comprehensive analysis of commercial willow bark extracts by new technology platform: combined use of metabolomics, high-performance liquid chromatography-solid-phase extraction-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and high-resolution radical scavenging assay.

Here, proof-of-concept of a new analytical platform used for the comprehensive analysis of a small set of commercial willow bark products is presented, and compared with a traditional standardization solely based on analysis of salicin and salicin derivatives. The platform combines principal component analysis (PCA) of two chemical fingerprints, i.e., HPLC and (1)H NMR data, and a pharmacological fingerprint, i.e., high-resolution 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) radical cation (ABTS(+)) reduction profile, with targeted identification of constituents of interest by hyphenated HPLC-solid-phase extraction-tube transfer NMR, i.e., HPLC-SPE-ttNMR. Score plots from PCA of HPLC and (1)H NMR fingerprints showed the same distinct grouping of preparations formulated as capsules of Salix alba bark and separation of S. alba cortex. Loading plots revealed this to be due to high amount of salicin in capsules and ampelopsin, taxifolin, 7-O-methyltaxifolin-3'-O-glucoside, and 7-O-methyltaxifolin in S. alba cortex, respectively. PCA of high-resolution radical scavenging profiles revealed clear separation of preparations along principal component 1 due to the major radical scavengers (+)-catechin and ampelopsin. The new analytical platform allowed identification of 16 compounds in commercial willow bark extracts, and identification of ampelopsin, taxifolin, 7-O-methyltaxifolin-3'-O-glucoside, and 7-O-methyltaxifolin in S. alba bark extract is reported for the first time. The detection of the novel compound, ethyl 1-hydroxy-6-oxocyclohex-2-enecarboxylate, is also described.

Resistance of Australian Helicoverpa armigera to fenvalerate is due to the chimeric P450 enzyme CYP337B3.

Worldwide, increasing numbers of insects have evolved resistance to a wide range of pesticides, which hampers their control in the field and, therefore, threatens agriculture. Members of the carboxylesterase and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase superfamilies are prominent candidates to confer metabolic resistance to pyrethroid insecticides. Both carboxylesterases and P450 enzymes have been shown to be involved in pyrethroid resistance in Australian Helicoverpa armigera, the noctuid species possessing by far the most reported resistance cases worldwide. However, specific enzymes responsible for pyrethroid resistance in field populations of this species have not yet been identified. Here, we show that the resistance toward fenvalerate in an Australian strain of H. armigera is due to a unique P450 enzyme, CYP337B3, which arose from unequal crossing-over between two parental P450 genes, resulting in a chimeric enzyme. CYP337B3 is capable of metabolizing fenvalerate into 4'-hydroxyfenvalerate, which exhibits no toxic effect on susceptible larvae; enzymes from the parental P450 genes showed no detectable fenvalerate metabolism. Furthermore, a polymorphic H. armigera strain could be bred into a susceptible line possessing the parental genes CYP337B1 and CYP337B2 and a resistant line possessing only CYP337B3. The exclusive presence of CYP337B3 in resistant insects of this strain confers a 42-fold resistance to fenvalerate. Thus, in addition to previously documented genetic mechanisms of resistance, recombination can also generate selectively advantageous variants, such as this chimeric P450 enzyme with an altered substrate specificity leading to a potent resistance mechanism.

H NMR-based metabolomics combined with HPLC-PDA-MS-SPE-NMR for investigation of standardized Ginkgo biloba preparations.

Commercial preparations of Ginkgo biloba are very complex mixtures prepared from raw leaf extracts by a series of extraction and prepurification steps. The pharmacological activity is attributed to a number of flavonoid glycosides and unique terpene trilactones (TTLs), with largely uncharacterized pharmacological profiles on targets involved in neurological disorders. It is therefore important to complement existing targeted analytical methods for analysis of Ginkgo biloba preparations with alternative technology platforms for their comprehensive and global characterization. In this work, (1)H NMR-based metabolomics and hyphenation of high-performance liquid chromatography, photo-diode array detection, mass spectrometry, solid-phase extraction, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (HPLC-PDA-MS-SPE-NMR) were used for investigation of 16 commercially available preparations of Ginkgo biloba. The standardized extracts originated from Denmark, Italy, Sweden, and United Kingdom, and the results show that (1)H NMR spectra allow simultaneous assessment of the content as well as identity of flavonoid glycosides and TTLs based on a very simple sample-preparation procedure consisting of extraction, evaporation and reconstitution in acetone-d(6). Unexpected or unwanted extract constituents were also easily identified in the (1)H NMR spectra, which contrasts traditional methods that depend on UV absorption or MS ionizability and usually require availability of reference standards. Automated integration of (1)H NMR spectral segments (buckets or bins of 0.02 ppm width) provides relative distribution plots of TTLs based on their H-12 resonances. The present study shows that (1)H NMR-based metabolomics is an attractive method for non-selective and comprehensive analysis of Ginkgo extracts. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11306-009-0195-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Thermal field-flow fractionation of charged submicrometer particles in aqueous media.

Thermal field-flow fractionation (ThFFF) of various types of submicrometer silica particles in aqueous media is experimentally investigated under an extended range of medium ionic strengths with and without the presence of surfactant. The experiments were designed to examine the applicability to submicrometer particles of the theory of charged nanoparticles thermodiffusion recently proposed by Parola and Piazza (Parola, A.; Piazza, R. Eur. Phys. J. E. 2004, 15, 255-263). In particular, the expression for the calibration function in terms of particle radius and channel temperature is derived and experimentally verified. Moreover, retention is expected to be dependent on particle surface potential and charge, and on ionic strength. These dependences are experimentally investigated and the pertinent relationships and correlations derived. The effect of heavy metal adsorption on the silica surface was investigated, and significant ThFFF retention changes were measured. Independent measurements of the zeta potential (zeta-potential) indicated that a decrease in the surface charge of a silica particle is a consequence of heavy metal adsorption, which is, in turn, correlated to the observed decrease in ThFFF retention.