Stress Appraisal Measure: Investigating the Factor Structure and Validity in the French Language.

The Stress Appraisal Measure (SAM) captures six different types of cognitive appraisals in anticipation of an upcoming stressful situation. The goal of this article was to examine the factorial structure and the validity of the scale in the French language while accounting for existing limitations in the literature. These include factorial structure instability and low internal consistency for specific subscales across multiple validation studies in other languages. In the first study (N = 425), the results from an exploratory factor analysis reliably suggested the removal of five items, the bridging of the threat and challenge subscales as one, and a new general five-factor structure. The new structure and its construct, convergent, and discriminant validity were confirmed in a second study (N = 308). We discuss the relevance of this five-factor scale for the studies focused on individual differences in stress and appraisals.

Investigating the relationship between specific executive functions and functional decline among community-dwelling older adults: results from a prospective pilot study.

BACKGROUND: As cognitive functions and, more specifically, executive functions (EF) seem to influence autonomy among the elderly, we investigated the role of each of the five EF sub-components (inhibition, spontaneous flexibility, reactive flexibility, planning, and updating in working memory) for the risk of functional decline. METHOD: A total of 137 community-dwelling participants over 75 years of age were included in a prospective cohort study and assigned to three groups: individuals with neuro-degenerative cognitive disorders, those having cognitive disorders with non-degenerative aetiology, and a control group without any cognitive problems. We measured each EF sub-component and assessed functional decline by evaluating basic (b-ADL) and instrumental activities of daily living (i-ADL) at baseline and 6 months later. We conducted three separate multiple logistic regression models to examine the extent to which the five EF facets predicted overall functional decline at the end of the follow-up period. RESULTS: We found that people who exhibited a decline in b-ADLs or/and i-ADLs over 6 months had worse performance on inhibition and two flexibility tasks than those who did not experience a decline. The results suggest that decliners have more difficulties in managing unforeseen events. Inhibition and updating in working memory predicted a decline in b-ADL while spontaneous and reactive flexibilities predicted a decline in i-ADL. CONCLUSION: In our sample, specific executive dysfunctions were associated with a decline in functional status. With respect to the risk of decline in b-ADL, deficits in inhibition may represent a risk factor, as it regulates over-learned activities. Bothtypes of flexibility, which allow the shifting and generating of adaptive responses, predicted decline in i-ADL. In sum, paying more attention to particular EF profiles would help clinicians to anticipate some aspects of functional decline.

Executive functioning as a predictor of physiological and subjective acute stress responses in non-clinical adult populations: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis.

The goal of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate whether executive functioning predicts subsequent acute stress responses. A systematic search (conducted between May 22nd and 30th, 2019; updated on April 4th, 2020) on Cochrane, OpenGray, Proquest Dissertations and Thesis Global, PsycInfo, Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science revealed 27 correlational and five interventional studies. For quality appraisal, we used the BIOCROSS Tool, the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, and the Revised Cochrane Risk-of-bias Tool for Randomized Trials. Attentional control was most consistently associated with acute stress. A robust variation estimation meta-analysis, conducted when sufficient data was available, revealed a small, significant, and negative correlation between higher working memory and subsequent lower cortisol reactivity (r = .09, p = .025, 95 % CI [0.15, 0.02]). These results highlight the role of executive functioning for acute stress responses, the scarcity of relevant data, and the need for both interventional designs and the consideration of mediators and moderators to understand underlying mechanisms.

Frailty in aging and its influence on perceived stress exposure and stress-related symptoms: evidence from the Swiss Vivre/Leben/Vivere study.

Frailty is a core concept in understanding vulnerability and adjustment to stress in older adults. Adopting the perspective provided by the transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus and Folkman in Stress, appraisal, and coping, Springer, New York, 1984), the present study examined three aspects of frailty in older adults: (1) the link between frailty and perceived stress exposure (PSE); (2) the link between frailty and stress-related symptoms (SRS); and (3) the role of frailty in the link between PSE and SRS. Participants were 2711 adults aged between 64 and 101 years who were taking part in the Swiss Vivre/Leben/Vivere study. As well as assessing frailty, we measured PSE and SRS during the 4 weeks preceding the administration of the questionnaires, together with the covariates age, sex, educational attainment, language of the canton, and type of canton (urban vs. rural). Regression analyses revealed higher levels of PSE in frail older adults than in non-frail older adults. In addition, frail older adults reported more SRS than non-frail older adults. As expected, the association between PSE and SRS differed as a function of the frailty status: The positive relation between PSE and SRS being stronger for frail older adults than for non-frail older adults. These results suggest that frailty is related to perceived discrepancy between resources and demands, and to ability to cope with PSE. Our findings have implications for interventions to help frail older adults manage stress.

Change in Cognitive Performance From Midlife Into Old Age: Findings from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) Study.

OBJECTIVES: A substantial body of research has documented age-related declines in cognitive abilities among adults over 60, yet there is much less known about changes in cognitive abilities during midlife. The goal was to examine longitudinal changes in multiple cognitive domains from early midlife through old age in a large national sample, the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study. METHODS: The Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (BTACT) was administered on two occasions (MIDUS 2, MIDUS 3), an average of 9 years apart. At MIDUS 3, those with the cognitive assessment (N=2518) ranged in age from 42 to 92 years (M=64.30; SD=11.20) and had a mean education of 14.68 years (SD=2.63). The BTACT includes assessment of key aging-sensitive cognitive domains: immediate and delayed free recall, number series, category fluency, backward digit span, processing speed, and reaction time for attention switching and inhibitory control, which comprise two factors: episodic memory and executive functioning. RESULTS: As predicted, all cognitive subtests and factors showed very small but significant declines over 9 years, with differences in the timing and extent of change. Processing speed showed the earliest and steepest decrements. Those with higher educational attainment scored better on all tests except reaction time. Men had better executive functioning and women performed better on episodic memory. CONCLUSIONS: Examining cognitive changes in midlife provides opportunities for early detection of cognitive impairments and possibilities for preventative interventions. (JINS, 2018, 24, 805-820).

Age variations in cohort differences in the United States: Older adults report fewer constraints nowadays than those 18 years ago, but mastery beliefs are diminished among younger adults.

Life Span psychological and life course sociological perspectives have long acknowledged that individual functioning is shaped by historical and sociocultural contexts. Secular increases favoring later-born cohorts are widely documented for fluid cognitive performance and well-being (among older adults). However, little is known about secular trends in other key resources of psychosocial function such as perceptions of control and whether historical changes have occurred in young, middle-aged, and older adults alike. To examine these questions, we compared data from two independent national samples of the Midlife in the United States survey obtained 18 years apart (1995/96 vs. 2013/14) and identified case-matched cohorts (per cohort, n = 2,223, aged = 23-75 years) based on age and gender. We additionally examined the role of economic resources for cohort differences in perceived mastery and constraints. Results revealed that older adults in later-born cohorts reported perceiving fewer constraints than did matched controls 18 years ago, with such positive secular trends being particularly pronounced among women. In contrast, younger adults reported perceiving more constraints in later-born cohorts than those 18 years ago and also reported perceiving lower mastery. We conclude from our national U.S. sample that secular trends generalize to central psychosocial resources across adulthood, such as perceptions of control, but are not unanimously positive. We discuss possible underlying mechanisms and practical implications. (PsycINFO Database Record

Childhood Misfortune and Adult Health in a National Study.

This study investigated the relationship between childhood misfortune and 10-year change in health and whether this relationship was mediated by the quality of social relations. We used data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) national longitudinal study, 1995-1996 (Time 1) and 2005-2006 (Time 2). Childhood misfortune was measured at Time 1 using indicators of financial strain, family structure, and abuse. Self-rated physical and mental health indicators were obtained at both occasions. The measure of quality of social relations was based on items relative to social support and social strain from spouse, friends, and family at Time 1. Mediational models showed that a higher level of childhood misfortune was associated with low-quality family relations which in turn tend to account for change in mental health. These findings suggest that childhood misfortune is associated with the quality of social relations, which in turn explain individual changes in mental health in adulthood.

Stress and Subjective Age: Those With Greater Financial Stress Look Older.

Subjective indicators of age add to our understanding of the aging process beyond the role of chronological age. We examined whether financial stress contributes to subjective age as rated by others and the self. The participants ( N = 228), aged 26-75, were from a Boston area satellite of the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) longitudinal study. Participants reported how old they felt and how old they thought they looked, and observers assessed the participants' age based on photographs (other-look age), at two occasions, an average of 10 years apart. Financial stress was measured at Time 1. Controlling for income, general stress, health, and attractiveness, participants who reported higher levels of financial stress were perceived as older than their actual age to a greater extent and showed larger increases in other-look age over time. We consider the results on accelerated aging of appearance with regard to their implications for interpersonal interactions and in relation to health.

Repetitive thinking, executive functioning, and depressive mood in the elderly.

OBJECTIVES: Previous findings and the depressive-executive dysfunction hypothesis suggest that the established association between executive functioning and depression is accounted for by repetitive thinking. Investigating the association between executive functioning, repetitive thinking, and depressive mood, the present study empirically tested this mediational model in a sample of older adults, while focusing on both concrete and abstract repetitive thinking. This latter distinction is important given the potential protective role of concrete repetitive thinking, in contrast to the depletive effect of abstract repetitive thinking. METHOD: A sample of 43 elderly volunteers, between 75 and 95 years of age, completed tests of executive functioning (the Stroop test, the Trail Making test, and the Fluency test), and questionnaires of repetitive thinking and depression. RESULTS: Positive correlations were observed between abstract repetitive thinking and depressive mood, and between concrete repetitive thinking and executive functioning; a negative correlation was observed between depressive mood and executive functioning. Further, mediational analysis evidenced that the relation between executive functioning and depressive mood was mediated by abstract repetitive thinking. CONCLUSION: The present data provide, for the first time, empirical support to the depressive-executive dysfunction hypothesis: the lack of executive resources would favor a mode of abstract repetitive thinking, which in turn would deplete mood. It suggests that clinical intervention targeting depression in the elderly should take into consideration repetitive thinking modes and the executive resources needed to disengage from rumination.

Awareness of Memory Ability and Change: (In)Accuracy of Memory Self-Assessments in Relation to Performance.

Little is known about subjective assessments of memory abilities and decline among middle-aged adults or their association with objective memory performance in the general population. In this study we examined self-ratings of memory ability and change in relation to episodic memory performance in two national samples of middle-aged and older adults from the Midlife in the United States study (MIDUS II in 2005-06) and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; every two years from 2002 to 2012). MIDUS (Study 1) participants (N=3,581) rated their memory compared to others their age and to themselves five years ago; HRS (Study 2) participants (N=14,821) rated their current memory and their memory compared to two years ago, with up to six occasions of longitudinal data over ten years. In both studies, episodic memory performance was the total number of words recalled in immediate and delayed conditions. When controlling for demographic and health correlates, self-ratings of memory abilities, but not subjective change, were related to performance. We examined accuracy by comparing subjective and objective memory ability and change. More than one third of the participants across the studies had self-assessments that were inaccurate relative to their actual level of performance and change, and accuracy differed as a function of demographic and health factors. Further understanding of self-awareness of memory abilities and change beginning in midlife may be useful for identifying early warning signs of decline, with implications regarding policies and practice for early detection and treatment of cognitive impairment.

Midlife as a Pivotal Period in the Life Course: Balancing Growth and Decline at the Crossroads of Youth and Old Age.

We provide evidence for multidirectionality, variability, and plasticity in the nature and direction of change in physical health, cognitive functioning, and well-being during the middle years of the life course. The picture of well-being in midlife based on longitudinal data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study is a more positive one than portrayed in previous cross-sectional studies. We present middle age as a pivotal period in the life course in terms of balancing growth and decline, linking earlier and later periods of life, and bridging younger and older generations. We highlight the role of protective factors and multisystem resilience in mitigating declines. Those in middle age play a central role in the lives of those who are younger and older at home, in the workplace, and in society at large. Thus, a focus on promoting health and well-being in middle age can have a far-reaching impact.

Older and younger adults' accuracy in discerning health and competence in older and younger faces.

We examined older and younger adults' accuracy judging the health and competence of faces. Accuracy differed significantly from chance and varied with face age but not rater age. Health ratings were more accurate for older than younger faces, with the reverse for competence ratings. Accuracy was greater for low attractive younger faces, but not for low attractive older faces. Greater accuracy judging older faces' health was paralleled by greater validity of attractiveness and looking older as predictors of their health. Greater accuracy judging younger faces' competence was paralleled by greater validity of attractiveness and a positive expression as predictors of their competence. Although the ability to recognize variations in health and cognitive ability is preserved in older adulthood, the effects of face age on accuracy and the different effects of attractiveness across face age may alter social interactions across the life span.

Perceived control reduces mortality risk at low, not high, education levels.

OBJECTIVE: Both higher levels of educational attainment and a strong sense of control over one's life independently predict better health and longevity. Evidence also suggests that these 2 factors may combine in multiplicative ways to influence subjective reports of health. METHOD: In the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) national sample (N = 6,135; age = 25 to 75 years), we tested whether stronger beliefs of control over one's life would moderate the effect of education on 14-year mortality risk. RESULTS: Proportional hazards modeling indicated that both current levels of education and control beliefs were associated with lower risk of dying, over and above childhood socioeconomic level. In addition, there was a significant interaction between education and control beliefs. Among those low in education, higher control beliefs were associated with a decreased mortality risk. However, at greater levels of education, control beliefs were not associated with mortality risk. This effect remained after adjusting for potential confounding variables, including health behaviors, depressed affect, and general health (chronic illnesses, functional limitations, and self-rated health). CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate the importance of individual perceptions of control in buffering the mortality risk associated with educational disadvantage.

Monitoring cognitive functioning: psychometric properties of the brief test of adult cognition by telephone.

Assessment of cognitive functioning is an important component of telephone surveys of health. Previous cognitive telephone batteries have been limited in scope with a primary focus on dementia screening. The Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (BTACT) assesses multiple dimensions central for effective functioning across adulthood: episodic memory, working memory, reasoning, verbal fluency, and executive function. The BTACT is the first instrument that includes measures of processing speed, reaction time, and task-switching/inhibitory control for use over the telephone. We administered the battery to a national sample (N = 4,268), age 32 to 84 years, from the study of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) and examined age, education, and sex differences; reliability; and factor structure. We found good evidence for construct validity with a subsample tested in person. Implications of the findings are considered for efficient neuropsychological assessment and monitoring changes in cognitive aging, for clinical and research applications by telephone or in person.

Maintaining a Sense of Control in the Context of Cognitive Challenge: Greater Stability in Control Beliefs Benefits Working Memory.

We considered the functional role of control beliefs for cognitive performance by focusing on patterns of stability across multiple trials increasing in level of difficulty. We assessed 56 adults aged 18-88 on working memory tasks. We examined stability vs. lability (intraindividual variability, IIV) in control beliefs and the relationships with anxiety, distraction, and performance. Age was positively associated with IIV in control and performance, and IIV increased with task difficulty. Those maintaining stable control beliefs had better performance, and showed less anxiety and distraction. Those with lower stability and less control showed steeper declines in performance and increases in distraction. The findings suggest that stability of control beliefs may serve a protective function in the context of cognitively challenging tasks.

Cortisol response to challenge involving low controllability: the role of control beliefs and age.

Cortisol responses are typically more pronounced under low controllability conditions, yet little is known about the role of individual differences. This study examined whether cortisol response to a situation with low controllability differs as a function of preexisting control beliefs and age. We manipulated level of controllability using a driving simulator. Control beliefs were assessed prior to the lab session. Salivary cortisol was measured before and after the driving simulation. Participants were 152 adults aged 22-84 from a Boston area sample. In comparison to the normal controllability condition, those in the low controllability condition reported less perceived control over driving, supporting the effectiveness of the manipulation. In the low controllability condition those with higher control beliefs showed a greater cortisol response than those with low control beliefs. Older adults showed a greater cortisol response than younger adults during the challenge. Implications of acute cortisol responses for performance outcomes are discussed.

Evaluating short-term and working memory in older adults: French normative data.

Short-term and working memory (WM) capacities are subject to change with ageing, both in normal older adults and in patients with degenerative or non-degenerative neurological disease. Few normative data are available for comparisons of short-term and WM capacities in the verbal, spatial and visual domains. To provide researchers and clinicians with a set of standardised tasks that assess short-term and WM using verbal and visuospatial materials, and to present normative data for that set of tasks. The present study compiled normative French data for three short-term memory tasks (verbal, visual and spatial simple span tasks) and two WM tasks (verbal and spatial complex span tasks) obtained from 445 healthy older adults aged between 55 and 85 years. Our data reveal main effects of age, education level and gender on older adults' short-term and WM performances. Equation-based normalisation can therefore be used to take these factors into account. The results provide a set of cut-off scores for five standardised tasks that can be used to determine the presence of short-term or WM impairment in older adults.

Low perceived control as a risk factor for episodic memory: the mediational role of anxiety and task interference.

Low perceived control is considered a risk factor for poor cognitive functioning, but the mechanisms are unclear. The goal of the present study was to analyze anxiety and task interference as sequential mediators of the association between control beliefs and episodic memory. Cognitive-specific control beliefs were assessed prior to the lab session. State anxiety was assessed in the lab, followed by a word list recall task. The frequency of intrusive thoughts during the memory task was reported by the participants as a measure of task interference after the completion of the cognitive testing. The results for 152 participants from the ages of 22 to 84 years supported the predicted three-path mediation model. Lower levels of control beliefs were associated with higher state anxiety, which in turn affected episodic memory performance by increasing the likelihood of task interference, with age, sex, and verbal abilities as covariates. The implications of the results for developing interventions to improve memory performance are considered.

Cognitive functioning in midlife and old age: combined effects of psychosocial and behavioral factors.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the joint protective contribution of psychosocial and behavioral factors to cognitive functioning and 10-year change, beyond the influence of sociodemographic factors, physical risk factors, health status, and engagement in cognitive activities. METHODS: Participants were from the National Study of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS), ages 32-84 at Time 2, and a subsample, the Boston Longitudinal Study (BOLOS), ages 34-84 at Time 2. We computed a composite protective measure including control beliefs, quality of social support, and physical exercise variables at two occasions, 9-10 years apart. Cognition was assessed at Time 2 in MIDUS and at both occasions in BOLOS. Multiple regressions were used for analysis. RESULTS: In MIDUS, the more of the protective factors, the better the cognitive performance, and the protective composite moderated education differences in memory. In BOLOS, the Time 1 composite predicted change in reasoning abilities, with a greater protective effect for those with lower education. DISCUSSION: A combination of modifiable psychosocial and behavioral factors has both concurrent and long-term protective effects on cognition in adulthood. The results are promising in that educational disparities in memory and reasoning were reduced, suggesting possible interventions to protect against cognitive declines.