ABSTRACT
Haematopoietic progenitor cells show special sensitivity to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutagenesis, which suggests that increased mtDNA mutagenesis could underlie anemias. Here we show that elevated mtDNA mutagenesis in mice with a proof-reading deficient mtDNA polymerase (PolG) leads to incomplete mitochondrial clearance, with asynchronized iron loading in erythroid precursors, and increased total and free cellular iron content. The resulting Fenton chemistry leads to oxidative damage and premature destruction of erythrocytes by splenic macrophages. Our data indicate that mitochondria actively contribute to their own elimination in reticulocytes and modulate iron loading. Asynchrony of this sequence of events causes severe mitochondrial anaemia by depleting the organism of red blood cells and the bone marrow of iron. Our findings account for the anaemia development in a progeroid mouse model and may have direct relevance to the anemias associated with human mitochondrial disease and ageing.
Subject(s)
Anemia/genetics , DNA, Mitochondrial/genetics , Erythrocytes/pathology , Mitochondria/genetics , Mitochondrial Diseases/genetics , Mutation , Progeria/genetics , Anemia/metabolism , Anemia/pathology , Animals , Cell Differentiation , Child, Preschool , DNA Polymerase gamma , DNA, Mitochondrial/metabolism , DNA-Directed DNA Polymerase/deficiency , DNA-Directed DNA Polymerase/genetics , Erythrocytes/metabolism , Erythropoiesis/genetics , Female , Hematopoietic Stem Cells/metabolism , Hematopoietic Stem Cells/pathology , Humans , Iron/metabolism , Macrophages/metabolism , Macrophages/pathology , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Transgenic , Mitochondria/metabolism , Mitochondria/pathology , Mitochondrial Diseases/metabolism , Mitochondrial Diseases/pathology , Oxidative Stress , Phagocytosis , Progeria/metabolism , Progeria/pathology , Reticulocytes/metabolism , Reticulocytes/pathologyABSTRACT
B-cell leukemia 3 (Bcl-3) is a member of the inhibitor of κB family, which regulates a wide range of biological processes by functioning as a transcriptional activator or as a repressor of target genes. As high levels of Bcl-3 expression and activation have been detected in different types of human cancer, Bcl-3 has been labeled a proto-oncogene. Our study uncovered a markedly upregulated Bcl-3 expression in human prostate cancer (PCa), where inflammatory cell infiltration was observed. Elevated Bcl-3 expression in PCa was dependent on the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6-mediated STAT3 activation. Microarray analyses, using Bcl-3 knockdown in PCa cells, identified the inhibitor of DNA-binding (Id) family of helix-loop-helix proteins as potential Bcl-3-regulated genes. Bcl-3 knockdown reduced the abundance of Id-1 and Id-2 proteins and boosted PCa cells to be more receptive to undergoing apoptosis following treatment with anticancer drug. Our data imply that inactivation of Bcl-3 may lead to sensitization of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis, thus suggesting a potential therapeutic strategy in PCa treatment.
Subject(s)
Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic , Inhibitor of Differentiation Protein 1/genetics , Inhibitor of Differentiation Protein 2/genetics , Prostatic Neoplasms/genetics , Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics , Proto-Oncogenes , Transcription Factors/genetics , B-Cell Lymphoma 3 Protein , Cell Line, Tumor , Humans , Interleukin-6/genetics , Male , NF-kappa B p52 Subunit/physiology , Promoter Regions, Genetic , Proto-Oncogene Mas , Proto-Oncogene Proteins/physiology , STAT3 Transcription Factor/physiology , Transcription Factors/physiologyABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To compare the electrophysiological and histopathological features of immunological myasthenia gravis (MG) subtypes. METHODS: Fifty MG patients underwent clinical examination, MuSK-Ab and AChR-Ab analysis. The majority underwent quantitative and single-fiber electromyography (QEMG, SFEMG), repetitive nerve stimulation and deltoid muscle biopsy. From muscle specimens with histological mitochondrial dysfunction, we amplified mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). In specimens with mtDNA deletions, the nuclear gene POLG1 was sequenced. RESULTS: Five AChR-Ab seropositive [AChR(+)] and 5 seronegative [AChR(-)] patients were MuSK-Ab seropositive [MuSK(+)]. Five of 7 neurophysiologically examined MuSK(+) patients (71%) had proximal myopathic pattern, compared to 7 of 31 MuSK(-)/AChR(+) patients (23%) (P=0.012). SFEMG was abnormal in all examined MuSK(+) patients. All 7 biopsied MuSK(+) and 32 MuSK(-) patients (89%) had cytochrome c oxidase (COX) negative fibers. Three of five MuSK(+) and 13 of 20 MuSK(-) patients analyzed had multiple mtDNA deletions but no POLG1 mutations. CONCLUSIONS: Similar degree of SFEMG abnormalities was present in proximal muscles among MuSK(+) and AChR(+) patients. Proximal myopathy was over-represented in MuSK(+) patients; however, both MuSK(+) and MuSK(-) patients had mild myopathy with frequent mitochondrial abnormalities. SIGNIFICANCE: The weakness in MuSK(+) patients is most likely due to disturbed neuromuscular transmission. The frequently encountered mitochondrial dysfunction in MG warrants further study.
