Korean Red Ginseng Extract Enhances the Anticancer Effects of Imatinib Mesylate Through Abrogation p38 and STAT5 Activation in KBM-5 Cells.

Although imatinib mesylate (IM) in the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) remains the best example of successful targeted therapy, majority of patients with CML suffer its toxicity profile and develop chemoresistance to existing therapeutic agents. Thus, there is a need to develop novel alternative therapies for the treatment of CML. Here, we investigated whether Korean red ginseng extract (KRGE) could suppress the proliferation and induce chemosensitization in human CML cells. Also, we used a human phospho-antibody array containing 46 antibodies against signaling molecules to examine a subset of phosphorylation events after treatment. Korean red ginseng extract broadly suppressed the proliferation of five different cell lines, but KRGE was found to be the most potent inducer of apoptosis against KBM-5 cells. It also abrogated the expression of Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2), Bcl-xL (B-cell lymphoma-extra large), survivin, inhibitors of apoptosis protein 1/2, COX-2 (Cyclooxygenase-2), cyclin D1, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and VEGF (Vascular endothelial growth factor), as well as upregulated the expression of pro-apoptotic gene products. Interestingly, KRGE also enhanced the cytotoxic and apoptotic effect of IM in KBM-5 cells. The combination treatment of KRGE and IM caused pronounced suppression of p38 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 phosphorylation and induced phosphorylation of p53 compared with the individual treatment. Our results demonstrate that KRGE can enhance the anticancer activity of IM and may have a substantial potential in the treatment of CML.

Anti-metastatic effect of supercritical extracts from the Citrus hassaku pericarp via inhibition of C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9).

The fruit of hassaku (Citrus hassaku Hort. ex Tanaka) is locally known as phalsak in Korea. Recently, the fruit extract has been known to exhibit in vivo preventive effects against UVB-induced pigmentation, antiallergic activity, and enhancement of blood fluidity. However, the exact mechanisms of how supercritical extracts of phalsak peel (SEPS) inhibits tumor metastasis and invasion are still not fully understood. We found that SEPS could downregulate the constitutive expression of both CXCR4 and HER2 in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells as compared with other cells. SEPS also suppressed matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) expression and its enzymatic activity under non-cytotoxic concentrations. Neither proteasome inhibition nor lysosomal stabilization had any effect on the SEPS-induced decrease in CXCR4 expression. A detailed study of the underlying molecular mechanisms revealed that the regulation of the downregulation of CXCR4 was at the transcriptional level, as indicated by downregulation of mRNA expression, suppression of NF-κB activity, and inhibition of chromatin immunoprecipitation activity. Suppression of CXCR4 expression by SEPS correlated with the inhibition of CXCL12-stimulated invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells. Overall, our results indicate, for the first time, that SEPS can suppress CXCR4 and MMP-9 expressions through blockade of NF-κB activation and thus has the potential to suppress metastasis of breast cancer.

Brassinin induces apoptosis in PC-3 human prostate cancer cells through the suppression of PI3K/Akt/mTOR/S6K1 signaling cascades.

The oncogenic PI3K/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling axis and its downstream effector, the ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) play a key role in mediating cell survival in various tumor cells. Here, we investigated the effects of brassinin (BSN), a phytoalexin first identified as a constituent of cabbage, on the PI3K/Akt/mTOR/S6K1 activation, cellular proliferation, and apoptosis in PC-3 human prostate cancer. BSN exerted a significant dose-dependent cytotoxicity and reduced constitutive phosphorylation of Akt against androgen-independent PC-3 cells as compared to androgen-dependent LNCaP cells. Moreover, knockdown of androgen receptor (AR) by small interfering RNA enhanced the potential effect of BSN on induction of apoptosis in LNCaP cells. BSN clearly suppressed the constitutive activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR/S6K1 signaling cascade, which correlated with the induction of apoptosis as characterized by accumulation of cells in subG1 phase, positive Annexin V binding, TUNEL staining, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, down-regulation of antiapoptotic and proliferative proteins, activation of caspase-3, and cleavage of PARP. Additionally, BSN could block broad-spectrum inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR/S6K1 axes, and aberrant Akt activation by pcDNA3-myr-HA-Akt1 plasmid could not prevent the observed suppressive effect of BSN on constitutive mTOR activation. Finally, overexpression of Bcl-2 also attenuated BSN-mediated apoptosis in PC-3 cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that BSN can interfere with multiple signaling cascades involved in tumorigenesis and might be provided as a potential therapeutic candidate for both the prevention and treatment of prostate cancer.

Ulmus davidiana var. japonica Nakai upregulates eosinophils and suppresses Th1 and Th17 cells in the small intestine.

The bark of Ulmus davidiana var. japonica Nakai (Ulmaceae) has been used in traditional Korean medicine for chronic inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. Here we investigated the frequency and cytokine profile of the major immune cells in the small intestinal lamina propria (SI LP), spleen, and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) of mice treated orally with Ulmus davidiana var. japonica Nakai bark water extract (UDE) to address the immunomodulatory role of this herb in intestinal homeostasis. B6 mice were given 5g/kg UDE once daily for 14 days. They were then sacrificed, and cells were isolated from the spleen, MLNs, and SI LP. The proportion of B versus T lymphocytes, CD4(+) versus CD8(+) T lymphocytes, Th1 and Th17 cells, and Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells in the spleen, MLNs, and SI LP were analyzed. The frequency of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), including dendritic cells, macrophages, and eosinophils in the SI LP and the expression of costimulatory molecules on APCs were also evaluated. The numbers and frequencies of Th1 and Th17 cells in the SI LP were significantly reduced in the UDE-treated mice compared with PBS controls. In addition, the proportion of IL-4-producing eosinophils in the SI LP was significantly elevated in the UDE-treated mice compared with controls. Taken together, these data indicate that UDE up-regulates the number and frequency of SI LP eosinophils, which can down-regulate the Th1 and Th17 responses via IL-4 secretion and contribute to intestinal homeostasis.

Anti-nephrolithic potential of resveratrol via inhibition of ROS, MCP-1, hyaluronan and osteopontin in vitro and in vivo.

BACKGROUND: Though resveratrol is known to have anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, the inhibitory mechanism of resveratrol in kidney stone formation has not been elucidated so far. METHOD: ELISA, flow cytometry, RT-PCR, and western blotting were performed. Human renal epithelial cells (HRCs) and rats with ethylene glycol (EG)-induced kidney stones were used. RESULTS: A wound healing assay revealed that resveratrol significantly inhibited the oxalate-mediated migration of HRCs, considering oxalate mediates kidney stone formation. Also, resveratrol suppressed the mRNA expression of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen (NADPH) oxidase subunits such as p22(phox) and p47(phox), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) and osteopontin (OPN) in oxalate-treated HRCs. Furthermore, western blotting showed that resveratrol downregulated the expression of MCP-1-related proteins including transforming growth factor(TGF-ß1), TGFR-I or II and hyaluronan in oxalate-treated HRCs. Consistently, resveratrol reduced oxalate-mediated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in oxalate-treated HRCs, while the activities of anti-oxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were enhanced by resveratrol in HRCs and EG-treated kidneys of rats. Consistently, resveratrol significantly reduced the number of urine calcium oxalate crystals and serum MDA, and attenuated the expression of OPN and hyaluroran in EG-treated rats. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that resveratrol exerts anti-nephrolithic potential via inhibition of ROS, MCP-1 hyaluronan and OPN signaling.

Embelin inhibits growth and induces apoptosis through the suppression of Akt/mTOR/S6K1 signaling cascades.

BACKGROUND: Akt/mTOR/S6K1 signaling cascades play an important role both in the survival and proliferation of tumor cells. METHODS: In the present study, we investigated the effects of embelin (EB), identified primarily from the Embelia ribes plant, on the Akt/mTOR/S6K1 activation, associated gene products, cellular proliferation, and apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells. RESULTS: EB exerted significant cytotoxic and suppressive effects on Akt and mTOR activation against androgen-independent PC-3 cells as compared to androgen-dependent LNCaP cells. Moreover, EB suppressed the constitutive activation of Akt/mTOR/S6K1 signaling cascade, which correlated with the induction of apoptosis as characterized by accumulation of cells in subG1 phase, positive Annexin V binding, down-regulation of anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, survivin, IAP-1, and IAP-2) and proliferative (cyclin D1) proteins, activation of caspase-3, and cleavage of PARP. We also observed that EB can significantly enhance the apoptotic effects of a specific pharmacological Akt inhibitor when used in combination and also caused broad inhibition of all the three kinases in Akt/mTOR/S6K1 signaling axis in PC-3 cells. CONCLUSIONS: EB inhibits multiple signaling cascades involved in tumorigenesis and can be used as a potential therapeutic candidate for both the prevention and treatment of prostate cancer.

Chrysanthemum indicum L. extract induces apoptosis through suppression of constitutive STAT3 activation in human prostate cancer DU145 cells.

Chrysanthemum indicum L. has been shown to possess antiinflammatory and anticancer activities, but its molecular targets/pathways are not yet fully understood in tumor cells. In the present study, the potential effects of C. indicum on signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway in different tumor cells were examined. The solvent fractions (hexane, CH2Cl2, EtOAc, and BuOH,) were obtained from a crude extract (80% EOH extract) of C. indicum. The methylene chloride fraction of C. indicum (MCI) exhibited strong cytotoxic activity as compared with the other fractions and clearly suppressed constitutive STAT3 activation against both DU145 and U266 cells, but not MDA-MB-231 cells. The suppression of constitutive STAT3 activation by MCI is associated with blocking upstream JAK1 and JAK2, but not Src. MCI downregulated the expression of STAT3-regulated gene products; this is correlated with the accumulation of the cell cycle at sub-G1 phase, the induction of caspase-3 activation, and apoptosis. Moreover, the major components of the MCI were bioactive compounds such as sudachitin, hesperetin, chrysoeriol, and acacetin. Sudachitin, chrysoeriol, and acacetin also exerted significantly cytotoxicity, clearly suppressed constitutive STAT3 activation, and induced apoptosis, although hesperetin did not show any significant effect in DU145 cells. Overall, our results demonstrate that MCI could induce apoptosis through inhibition of the JAK1/2 and STAT3 signaling pathways.

Capillarisin inhibits iNOS, COX-2 expression, and proinflammatory cytokines in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages via the suppression of ERK, JNK, and NF-κB activation.

The aerial parts of Artemisia capillaris (Compositae) have been used in traditional Korean medicine as a cholagogic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic purposes. In our previous study, ethanolic extracts of the plant demonstrated a marked anti-inflammatory effect in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells (J. Korean Soc. Appl. Biol. Chem., 2010, 53, 275-282). In the present study, capillarisin (CPS), a flavone, main constituent of A. capillaris, was examined for its anti-inflammatory activity in the cells. We found that CPS highly suppressed LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) without exerting cytotoxic effects on RAW 264.7 cells. CPS inhibited the expression of LPS-induced inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein and their mRNA in a dose-dependent manner. Also, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1ß, and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) secretion were decreased by CPS in LPS-stimulated macrophages. As a result, CPS inhibited proinflammatory cytokines, iNOS, and COX-2, which is attributed to the suppression of LPS-induced ERK, JNK, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. Therefore, we demonstrate here that CPS potentially inhibits the biomarkers related to inflammation through the abrogation of ERK, JNK, and NF-κB p65 activation, and it may be a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Antimetastatic effect of nobiletin through the down-regulation of CXC chemokine receptor type 4 and matrix metallopeptidase-9.

CONTEXT: Nobiletin is one of the citrus bioflavonoids and can be found in citrus fruits such as lemons, oranges, tangerines, and grapefruits. The most studied properties of nobiletin are its anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. OBJECTIVE: The exact mechanisms of how nobiletin inhibits tumor metastasis and invasion are still not fully understood. In this study, we screened various natural compounds to down-modulate the CXC chemokine receptor-4 (CXCR4) and matrix metallopeptidase-9 (MMP-9). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The effect of nobiletin on the constitutive expressions of CXCR4 and MMP-9, MMP-9 enzymatic activity, associated nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) activation, and tumor cell invasion in human breast cancer cells was investigated. CXCR4 and MMP-9 expression were evaluated via reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blotting. NF-κB activation was also evaluated by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). In addition, the antimetastatic effects of nobiletin were determined by gelatin zymography and invasion assay. RESULTS: Nobiletin down-regulated both the constitutive expressions of CXCR4 and MMP-9 in human breast cancer cells with IC(50) values of 32 and 24 µM, respectively. Nobiletin also suppressed MMP-9 enzymatic activity and tumor cell invasion under noncytotoxic concentrations. Neither proteasome inhibition nor lysosomal stabilization had any effect on the nobiletin-induced decrease in CXCR4 expression. A detailed study of the underlying molecular mechanisms revealed that the regulation of the down-regulation of CXCR4 and MMP-9 were at the transcriptional level, as indicated by the down-regulation of mRNA expression and the suppression of the constitutive NF-κB and MAPKs activation. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Our results indicate, for the first time, that nobiletin is a novel blocker of CXCR4 and MMP-9 expressions and thus has the potential to suppress metastasis of breast cancer.

Improvement of atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions by Platycodon grandiflorum fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum in NC/Nga mice.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is characterized as a multi-factorial inflammatory skin disease that has been increasing worldwide. Previously, we demonstrated that FPG, which is Platycodon grandiflorum (PG) fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum (LP), increases the level of interferon (IFN)-gamma in mouse splenocytes in vitro. In this study, we investigated the effects of FPG in an animal model of AD, with a particular emphasis on its effects on T helper (Th)1 and Th2 immune responses. To assess the potential use of FPG for the inhibition of AD, we established a model of AD-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice. Immunoglobulin isotypes (Igs) and Th1/Th2 cytokines in the sera and spleens of AD-like mice were examined. In addition, histological examination was also performed. AD symptoms in skin lesions improved following oral administration of FPG. IgE secretion was significantly down-regulated, and this was accompanied by decreased levels of interleukin (IL)-4 and IgG1 and increased serum levels of IL-12p40 and IgG2a in FPG-treated animals. In splenocytes, the production of the Th1 cytokines IL-12p40 and IFN-gamma was up-regulated, while the levels of the Th2 cytokines IL-4 and 5 were down-regulated by FPG treatment. These results suggest that FPG inhibits the development of AD-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice by suppressing the Th2 cell response and increasing the Th1 cell responses. Our results indicate that FPG is safe and effective for the prevention of AD-like skin lesions.

Emodin inhibits invasion and migration of prostate and lung cancer cells by downregulating the expression of chemokine receptor CXCR4.

Emodin (ED), an anthraquinone derivative, has been found to inhibit proliferation, induce apoptosis, suppress angiogenesis, impede metastasis, and enhance chemotherapy. However, the detailed mechanism of ED related to the regulation of CXC chemokine receptor-4 (CXCR4) gene expression that affects cellular migration and invasion in prostate and lung cancer cells are not fully understood. Recent evidence indicates that the CXCR4/CXCL12 axis is involved in promoting invasion and metastasis in tumors. Thus, novel agents that can downregulate CXCR4 expression have therapeutic potential in repressing cancer metastasis. Among ED and its derivatives, it is found that ED downregulated the expression of both CXCR4 and HER2 without affecting cell viability in tumor cells. The suppression of CXCR4 expression by ED was found to correlate with the inhibition of CXCL12-induced migration and invasion of both DU145 and A549 cells. Besides, neither proteasome inhibition nor lysosomal stabilization had any effect on ED-induced decrease in CXCR4 expression. The basic molecular mechanisms unveiled that the downregulation of CXCR4 was at the transcriptional level, as indicated by downregulation of mRNA expression and suppression of NF-κB activation. Overall, our findings suggest that ED is a novel blocker of CXCR4 expression and, thus, has enormous potential as a powerful therapeutic agent for metastatic cancer.

A hexane fraction of guava Leaves (Psidium guajava L.) induces anticancer activity by suppressing AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin/ribosomal p70 S6 kinase in human prostate cancer cells.

This study was carried out to evaluate the anticancer effects of guava leaf extracts and its fractions. The chemical compositions of the active extracts were also determined. In the present study, we set out to determine whether the anticancer effects of guava leaves are linked with their ability to suppress constitutive AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/ribosomal p70 S6 kinase (S6K1) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation pathways in human prostate cancer cells. We found that guava leaf hexane fraction (GHF) was the most potent inducer of cytotoxic and apoptotic effects in PC-3 cells. The molecular mechanism or mechanisms of GHF apoptotic potential were correlated with the suppression of AKT/mTOR/S6K1 and MAPK signaling pathways. This effect of GHF correlated with down-regulation of various proteins that mediate cell proliferation, cell survival, metastasis, and angiogenesis. Analysis of GHF by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry tentatively identified 60 compounds, including ß-eudesmol (11.98%), α-copaene (7.97%), phytol (7.95%), α-patchoulene (3.76%), ß-caryophyllene oxide (CPO) (3.63%), caryophylla-3(15),7(14)-dien-6-ol (2.68%), (E)-methyl isoeugenol (1.90%), α-terpineol (1.76%), and octadecane (1.23%). Besides GHF, CPO, but not phytol, also inhibited the AKT/mTOR/S6K1 signaling pathway and induced apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. Overall, these findings suggest that guava leaves can interfere with multiple signaling cascades linked with tumorigenesis and provide a source of potential therapeutic compounds for both the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Antiproliferative effects of Dangyuja (Citrus grandis Osbeck) leaves through suppression of constitutive signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activation in human prostate carcinoma DU145 cells.

Although Dangyuja (Citrus grandis Osbeck) exhibits anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities, its molecular targets and pathways, especially in human prostate cancer cells, are not fully understood. In this study, the antiproliferative effect of Dangyuja leaves through the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3 signaling pathway was investigated in human prostate carcinoma DU145 cells. The solvent fractions (n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol) were obtained from a crude extract (80% methanol extract) of Dangyuja leaves. We first found that the chloroform fraction of Dangyuja leaves (DCF) was the most cytotoxic against DU145 cells. DCF inhibited constitutive STAT3 activation through blocking upstream Janus-like kinase 2 and c-Src. Consistent with STAT3 inactivation, DCF down-regulated the expression of STAT3 target genes, including bcl-2, bcl-xl, and cyclin D1; this correlated with the suppression of proliferation, the accumulation of cell cycle at the sub-G(1) phase, and the induction of apoptosis. Furthermore, DCF exerted a relatively minor effect on the growth of human prostate noncancerous RWPE-1 cells. Nobiletin, a major active constituent of DCF, could induce apoptosis via the suppression of constitutive STAT3 activation. Overall, our results indicate that the anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities previously assigned to DCF may be mediated partially through the suppression of the STAT3 signaling.

The butanol fraction of guava (Psidium cattleianum Sabine) leaf extract suppresses MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression and activity through the suppression of the ERK1/2 MAPK signaling pathway.

The leaf extract of guava (Psidium cattleianum Sabine) has traditionally been used for the treatment of diarrhea and diabetes in East Asia and other countries. Recently, the leaf extract has been employed in the therapy of cancer, bacterial infections, and inflammation in experimental models. However, the exact mechanisms of how guava leaf extract inhibits tumor metastasis and invasion are still unknown. In the present study, we investigated in detail the molecular mechanism(s) responsible for the potential antimetastatic and antiinvasive effects of the butanol fraction of guava leaf extract (GBF). Interestingly, we observed for the first time that GBF suppressed both matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-9 and MMP-2 expression and activity in part through the downregulation of the ERK1/2 activation in lung cancer cells. Also, importantly, the major components of the GBF were identified as d-glucuronic acid, quercetin 3-glucuronide, loganin, and xanthyletin by LC-ESI-MS/MS. Collectively, our data indicate that the guava leaf could reduce the metastasis of lung cancer cells and therefore suggest that it could be advantageously used to control the metastatic process.

Anti-inflammatory activities of Reynoutria elliptica through suppression of mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor-κB activation pathways.

Reynoutria elliptica has been used in traditional Korean medicine to promote blood circulation, relieve pain, increase dieresis, and alleviate respiratory problems, through as yet undefined mechanisms. We set out to determine whether the anti-inflammatory effects of this plant are linked with its ability to suppress mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 cells. We found for the first time that the hexane fraction of Reynoutria elliptica (HRE) significantly inhibited LPS-stimulated NO and PGE2 synthesis. This is due to the diminishing of the mRNA and protein expression of iNOS and COX-2, respectively. HRE also suppressed LPS-stimulated TNF-α secretion in a dose-dependent manner, which might be due to the suppression of LPS-induced MAPKs and NF-κB activation. Moreover, our HPLC data demonstrated that the major components of the HRE were bioactive compounds such as emodin-6-Glc, emodin, and physcion. Overall, our results indicate that Reynoutria elliptica could be provided as a potential candidate for anti-inflammation treatment.

Inhibition of LPS-induced inflammatory biomarkers by ethyl acetate fraction of Patrinia scabiosaefolia through suppression of NF-κB activation in RAW 264.7 cells.

Patrinia scabiosaefolia (PS) has been used for curing various types of inflammatory-related disorders. However, the precise mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity of PS remains unclear. Here, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of several fractions isolated from the PS in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The results indicated that the ethyl acetate fraction of PS (EAPS) concentration highly suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) and IL-6 productions without a cytotoxic effect on RAW 264.7 cells. EAPS inhibited the expressions of LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 protein and their mRNA in a dose-dependent manner. Particularly, EAPS suppressed the level of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activity, which was linked with the suppression of LPS-induced phosphorylation of p65 at serine 276 and p65 translocation into nuclei, but not MAPK signaling. In addition, treatment with EAPS inhibited the production of TNF-α in LPS-injected mice and suppressed the production of IL-6 and TNF-α in LPS-stimulated splenocytes from BALB/c mice. Therefore, we demonstrate here that Patrinia scabiosaefolia potentially inhibits the biomarkers related to inflammation through the blocking of NF-κB p65 activation, and it may be a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Polygoni Rhizoma inhibits inflammatory response through inactivation of nuclear factor-kappaB and mitogen activated protein kinase signaling pathways in RAW264.7 mouse macrophage cells.

The objective of this study was to determine the antiinflammatory effects of Polygoni Rhizoma (PR), an Oriental medicinal herb, in interleukin 1 beta (IL-1ß) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 mouse macrophage cells. PR significantly reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and pro-inflammatory mediators such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) even at a concentration of 1 µg/mL in the cells. In addition, PR inhibited the transcriptional activity of NF-κB as well as the degradation and phosphorylation of inhibitory kappa B alpha (IκBα). Furthermore, PR suppressed the phosphorylation of extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2) in IL-1ß and LPS-treated RAW264.7. The results suggest that PR exerts an antiinflammatory property by inhibiting iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α and IL-6 production in association with inactivation of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways in RAW 264.7 cells.

Penta-O-galloyl-ß-D-glucose attenuates cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity via reactive oxygen species reduction in renal epithelial cells and enhances antitumor activity in Caki-2 renal cancer cells.

Cisplatin shows limited therapeutic efficacy due to serious side effects such as nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity. In the present study, we demonstrate that 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-ß-d-glucose (PGG) has protective effects against cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in normal human primary renal epithelial cells (HRCs) while showing synergistic effect against cisplatin-induced cell death in human Caki-2 renal cancer cells. PGG significantly blocked cisplatin-mediated cytotoxicity and reduced cisplatin-induced sub-G1 accumulation in HRCs. Consistently, PGG reduced the number of apoptotic cell populations by TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and Live/Dead assays in cisplatin-treated HRCs. Furthermore, PGG suppressed PARP cleavage and caspase-3 activation, cytochrome c release, up-regulation of bax and p53 in cisplatin-treated HRCs. Moreover, PGG attenuated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production mediated by cisplatin treatment, suggesting that PGG prevented cisplatin-induced apoptosis by inhibiting ROS generation in HRCs. Notably, PGG significantly enhanced cytotoxicity and PARP cleavage in cisplatin-treated Caki-2 renal cancer cells. Combination Index (CI) revealed synergism between PGG and cisplatin in Caki-2 cells. Taken together, our findings suggest the dual effects of PGG as a protective supplement against cisplatin-induced toxicity in normal renal cells and a combination chemotherapeutic drug with cisplatin in renal cancer cells.

Rhapontigenin inhibited hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha accumulation and angiogenesis in hypoxic PC-3 prostate cancer cells.

Hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) is frequently over-expressed in the numerous types of cancer and plays an important role in angiogenesis. In the present study, the inhibitory mechanism of rhapontigenin isolated from Vitis coignetiae was investigated on HIF-1α stability and angiogenesis in human prostate cancer PC-3 cells. Rhapontigenin significantly suppressed HIF-1α accumulation at protein level but not at mRNA level in PC-3 cells under hypoxia. Also, rhapontigenin suppressed hypoxia-induced HIF-1α activation in various cancer cells, such as colorectal adenocarcinoma (SW620), breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), fibrosarcoma (HT-1080) and prostate carcinoma (LNCaP). Interestingly, rhapontigenin had more potency in inhibition of hypoxia-induced HIF-1α expression than that of resveratrol, a known HIF-1α inhibitor. In addition, rhapontigenin promoted hypoxia-induced HIF-1α degradation and cycloheximide (CHX) blocked protein synthesis. A prolyl hydroxylase (PHD) inhibitor dimethyloxalylglycine (DMOG) is usually utilized to examine whether prolyl hydroxylation is involved in inhibition of HIF-1α accumulation. Here, DMOG recovered HIF-1α accumulation inhibited by rhapontigenin. Immunoprecipitation assay also revealed that rhapotigenin enhanced the binding of hydroxylated HIF-1α to von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor protein. Furthermore, rhapontigenin reduced vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion in hypoxic PC-3 cells as well as suppressed tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) treated by the conditioned media of hypoxic PC-3 cells. However, anti-angiogenic effect of rhapontigenin in hypoxic PC-3 cells was reversed by DMOG. Taken together, these findings suggest that rhapontigenin inhibits HIF-1α accumulation and angiogenesis in PC-3 prostate cancer cells.

Embelin suppresses STAT3 signaling, proliferation, and survival of multiple myeloma via the protein tyrosine phosphatase PTEN.

Even though embelin, an inhibitor of the XIAP, is known to exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities, very little is known about its mechanism of action. Here, we investigated whether embelin mediates its effect through interference with the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway. We found that embelin inhibited constitutive STAT3 activation in a variety of human cancer cell lines such as U266, DU-145, and SCC4 cells. The suppression of STAT3 was mediated through inhibition of the activation of JAK2 and c-Src. Pervanadate treatment also reversed the embelin-induced down-regulation of STAT3, suggesting the involvement of a protein tyrosine phosphatase. Indeed, we found that embelin-induced the expression of the tyrosine phosphatase PTEN and deletion of the PTEN gene by small interfering RNA abolished the ability of embelin to inhibit STAT3 activation. Besides, embelin failed to suppress STAT3 activation in PTEN-null PC3 cells, thus indicating that the inhibitory effect of embelin on STAT3 is PTEN-dependent. Embelin down-regulated the expression of STAT3-regulated gene products; this correlated with the suppression of cell proliferation and invasion, and the induction of apoptosis through the activation of caspase-3. Overall, our results indicate that the anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities previously assigned to embelin may be mediated in part through the suppression of the STAT3 pathway.