Kangiella spongicola sp. nov., a halophilic marine bacterium isolated from the sponge Chondrilla nucula.

A novel halophilic bacterium of the genus Kangiella was isolated from a marine sponge collected from the Florida Keys, USA. Strain A79(T), an aerobic, Gram-negative, non-motile, rod-shaped bacterium, grew in 2-15 % (w/v) NaCl, at a temperature of 10-49 °C and at pH 4.5-10. Phylogenetic analysis placed strain A79(T) in the family Alcanivoraceae in the class Gammaproteobacteria. Strain A79(T) showed 98.5 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity to Kangiella japonica KMM 3899(T), 96.6 % similarity to Kangiella koreensis DSM 16069(T) and 95.6 % similarity to Kangiella aquimarina DSM 16071(T). The major cellular fatty acids were iso-C(11 : 0), iso-C(11 : 0) 3-OH, iso-C(15 : 0), iso-C(17 : 0) and iso-C(17 : 1)ω9c and the G+C content of the genomic DNA was 44.9 mol%. On the basis of physiological, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic comparisons, strain A79(T) represents a novel species in the genus Kangiella, for which the name Kangiella spongicola sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is A79(T) ( = ATCC BAA-2076(T) = DSM 23219(T)).

Desulfoluna spongiiphila sp. nov., a dehalogenating bacterium in the Desulfobacteraceae from the marine sponge Aplysina aerophoba.

A reductively dehalogenating, strictly anaerobic, sulfate-reducing bacterium, designated strain AA1T, was isolated from the marine sponge Aplysina aerophoba collected in the Mediterranean Sea and was characterized phenotypically and phylogenetically. Cells of strain AA1T were Gram-negative, short, curved rods. Growth of strain AA1T was observed between 20 and 37 degrees C (optimally at 28 degrees C) at pH 7-8. NaCl was required for growth; optimum growth occurred in the presence of 25 g NaCl l(-1). Growth occurred with lactate, propionate, pyruvate, succinate, benzoate, glucose and sodium citrate as electron donors and carbon sources and either sulfate or 2-bromophenol as electron acceptors, but not with acetate or butyrate. Strain AA1T was able to dehalogenate several different bromophenols, and 2- and 3-iodophenol, but not monochlorinated or fluorinated phenols. Lactate, pyruvate, fumarate and malate were not utilized without an electron acceptor. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 58.5 mol%. The predominant cellular fatty acids were C14:0, iso-C14:0, C14:0 3-OH, anteiso-C15:0, C16:0, C16:1omega7c and C18:1omega7c. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons placed the novel strain within the class Deltaproteobacteria. Strain AA1T was related most closely to the type strains of Desulfoluna butyratoxydans (96% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity), Desulfofrigus oceanense (95%) and Desulfofrigus fragile (95%). Based on its phenotypic, physiological and phylogenetic characteristics, strain AA1T is considered to represent a novel species of the genus Desulfoluna, for which the name Desulfoluna spongiiphila sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is AA1T (=DSM 17682T=ATCC BAA-1256T).

Degradation of phenol via phenylphosphate and carboxylation to 4-hydroxybenzoate by a newly isolated strain of the sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfobacterium anilini.

A sulfate-reducing phenol-degrading bacterium, strain AK1, was isolated from a 2-bromophenol-utilizing sulfidogenic estuarine sediment enrichment culture. On the basis of phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene and DNA homology, strain AK1 is most closely related to Desulfobacterium anilini strain Ani1 (= DSM 4660(T)). In addition to phenol, this organism degrades a variety of other aromatic compounds, including benzoate, 2-hydroxybenzoate, 4-hydroxybenzoate, 4-hydroxyphenylacetate, 2-aminobenzoate, 2-fluorophenol, and 2-fluorobenzoate, but it does not degrade aniline, 3-hydroxybenzoate, 4-cyanophenol, 2,4-dihydroxybenzoate, monohalogenated phenols, or monohalogenated benzoates. Growth with sulfate as an electron acceptor occurred with acetate and pyruvate but not with citrate, propionate, butyrate, lactate, glucose, or succinate. Strain AK1 is able to use sulfate, sulfite, and thiosulfate as electron acceptors. A putative phenylphosphate synthase gene responsible for anaerobic phenol degradation was identified in strain AK1. In phenol-grown cultures inducible expression of the ppsA gene was verified by reverse transcriptase PCR, and 4-hydroxybenzoate was detected as an intermediate. These results suggest that the pathway for anaerobic degradation of phenol in D. anilini strain AK1 proceeds via phosphorylation of phenol to phenylphosphate, followed by carboxylation to 4-hydroxybenzoate. The details concerning such reaction pathways in sulfidogenic bacteria have not been characterized previously.

Biostimulation and bioaugmentation to enhance dechlorination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins in contaminated sediments.

Dechlorination of spiked 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,2,3,4-TeCDD) was investigated in sediment microcosms from three polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran (CDD/F)-contaminated sites: River Kymijoki, Finland; Gulf Island Pond, Maine; and Lake Roosevelt, Washington. Dechlorination was stimulated by addition of electron donor and halogenated priming compounds, and bioaugmentation by a mixed culture containing Dehalococcoides ethenogenes strain 195. Amendment with 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene (1,2,3,4-TeCB) promoted rapid dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-TeCDD to 2-monochlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2MCDD) in Gulf Island Pond and River Kymijoki sediments, however, only slow dechlorination to 1,4-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin was observed in Lake Roosevelt sediments. The dechlorination pathway in 1,2,3,4-TeCB-amended microcosms proceeded mainly via 1,3-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, with less production of 2,3-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in comparison with other treatments. Microbial community analyses indicated that Dehalococcoides-like bacteria were enriched with 1,2,3,4-TeCB. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis of Dehalococcoides-specific 16S rRNA genes and the D. ethenogenes strain 195 dehalogenase gene, tceA, showed at least an order of magnitude higher gene copy numbers in the bioaugmented than in the nonbioaugmented microcosms. An active-dechlorinating population is present in the River Kymijoki and biostimulation may enhance both native Dehalococcoides spp. and the bioaugmented D. ethenogenes strain 195.

Comparison of anaerobic microbial communities from Estuarine sediments amended with halogenated compounds to enhance dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin.

A suite of experiments were conducted to ascertain whether dehalogenation of a model dioxin compound could be stimulated in marine sediments by supplementation with halogenated analogues to enrich for dehalogenating bacteria and if growth by members of the Chloroflexi-like group was associated with dioxin removal. Five halogenated compounds (tetrachlorobenzene, tetrachloroanisole, tetrachlorophenol, tetrachlorobenzoic acid and trichloroacetophenone) were added with 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TeCDD) to estuarine sediments from four sites in San Diego Bay and the coast of southern New Jersey to test for dioxin dehalogenation. Most of the halogenated additives were found to stimulate dechlorination of the model dioxin. Molecular analysis of the bacterial population using 16S rRNA and reductive dehalogenase genes indicated that distinct microbial populations were enriched with each halogenated co-amendment. Additionally, Chloroflexi-like ribosomal genes associated with dehalogenation were detected. For example, quantitative real-time PCR analysis of 16S rRNA and reductive dehalogenase gene copy number in the microcosms showed a positive correlation with 1,2,3,4-TeCDD reductive dechlorination in coastal sediments amended with different halogenated additives. These results suggest that specific Chloroflexi-like microorganisms related to Dehalococcoides are involved in 1,2,3,4-TeCDD reductive dechlorination.

Co-amendment with halogenated compounds enhances anaerobic microbial dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-P-dioxin and 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzofuran in estuarine sediments.

Halogenated coamendments enhanced dechlorination of 31 microM of spiked 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TeCDD) and 49 microM of spiked 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (TeCDF) in sediments from San Diego Bay (CA, USA) and Tuckerton (NJ, USA). Dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-TeCDD occurred to a greater extent under methanogenic than under sulfate-reducing conditions. The most effective stimulation of 1,2,3,4-TeCDD dechlorination occurred with coamendment of 25 microM of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene (TeCB), 2,3,4,5-tetrachloroanisole (TeCA), 2,3,4,5-tetrachlorophenol, or 2',3',4'-trichloroacetophenone plus 500 microM lactate and 500 microM propionate as electron donors. The 1,2,3,4-TeCDD dechlorination was evident after three months and sequentially produced mainly 1,2,4-trichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 1,3-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, and 2-monochlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (MCDD). Monobromophenols (2-bromo-, 3-bromo-, and 4-bromophenol), monochlorophenols (2-chloro-, 3-chloro-, and 4-chlorophenol), 2,3,5,6-tetrachlorobenzoate, or electron donors alone stimulated less 1,2,3,4-TeCDD dechlorination, with activity apparent only after six months. The 1,2,3,4-TeCDD dechlorination produced 50 mol % 2-MCDD after six months in sediments from the more contaminated Graving Dock and Paleta Creek sites in San Diego Bay. The 1,2,3,4-TeCDD dechlorination by sediments from the less contaminated Shelter Island site in San Diego Bay and in pristine Tuckerton sediments did not produce 2-MCDD. Dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-TeCDF to tri- and dichlorinated daughter products was significantly enhanced by TeCB and TeCA. These results suggest that halogenated aromatic compounds with structural similarity to 1,2,3,4-TeCDD/F stimulate bacteria with the ability to dechlorinate chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and furans.

Detection and characterization of a dehalogenating microorganism by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting of 16S rRNA in a sulfidogenic, 2-bromophenol-utilizing enrichment.

Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of reverse-transcribed 16S rRNA during periods of community flux was used as a tool to delineate the roles of the members of a 2-bromophenol-degrading, sulfate-reducing consortium. Starved, washed cultures were amended with 2-bromophenol plus sulfate, 2-bromophenol plus hydrogen, phenol plus sulfate, or phenol with no electron acceptor and were monitored for substrate use. In the presence of sulfate, 2-bromophenol and phenol were completely degraded. In the absence of sulfate, 2-bromophenol was dehalogenated and phenol accumulated. Direct terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting of the 16S rRNA in the various subcultures indicated that phylotype 2BP-48 (a Desulfovibrio-like sequence) was responsible for the dehalogenation of 2-bromophenol. A stable coculture was established which contained predominantly 2BP-48 and a second Desulfovibrio-like bacterium (designated BP212 based on terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting) that was capable of dehalogenating 2-bromophenol to phenol. Strain 2BP-48 in the coculture could couple reductive dehalogenation to growth with 2-bromophenol, 2,6-dibromophenol, or 2-iodophenol and lactate or formate as the electron donor. In addition to halophenols, strain 2BP-48 appears to use sulfate, sulfite, and thiosulfate as electron acceptors and is capable of simultaneous sulfidogenesis and reductive dehalogenation in the presence of sulfate.

Anaerobic dehalogenation of organohalide contaminants in the marine environment.

Microbially mediated dehalogenation processes contribute to the global cycling of both biogenic and anthropogenic halogenated organic compounds. Detailed information on biodegradation mechanisms for a variety of organohalides and on the microorganisms mediating these processes has greatly increased our understanding of the cycling and fate of these unique and widespread compounds in our environment. The marine environment appears to be a particularly rich source of dehalogenating microorganisms. It is well established by laboratory and field studies that anaerobic dehalogenation of sediment contaminants, such as PCBs, pesticides, and dioxins, occurs intrinsically and can be enhanced via various methods. Specific dehalogenating bacterial populations can be enriched on various organohalides. Biodehalogenation processes are likely to be significantly affected by the prevailing terminal electron-accepting condition, and thus, biotransformation of organohalide contaminants in marine and estuarine environments will vary as a function of the redox conditions within the sediment profile. Fundamental knowledge of the activities and interactions of dehalogenating microorganisms is providing a strong basis for development of new bioremediation technologies for removal of harmful halogenated compounds from our environment.

Reductive dehalogenation of brominated phenolic compounds by microorganisms associated with the marine sponge Aplysina aerophoba.

Marine sponges are natural sources of brominated organic compounds, including bromoindoles, bromophenols, and bromopyrroles, that may comprise up to 12% of the sponge dry weight. Aplysina aerophoba sponges harbor large numbers of bacteria that can amount to 40% of the biomass of the animal. We postulated that there might be mechanisms for microbially mediated degradation of these halogenated chemicals within the sponges. The capability of anaerobic microorganisms associated with the marine sponge to transform haloaromatic compounds was tested under different electron-accepting conditions (i.e., denitrifying, sulfidogenic, and methanogenic). We observed dehalogenation activity of sponge-associated microorganisms with various haloaromatics. 2-Bromo-, 3-bromo-, 4-bromo-, 2,6-dibromo-, and 2,4,6-tribromophenol, and 3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzoate were reductively debrominated under methanogenic and sulfidogenic conditions with no activity observed in the presence of nitrate. Monochlorinated phenols were not transformed over a period of 1 year. Debromination of 2,4,6-tribromophenol, and 2,6-dibromophenol to 2-bromophenol was more rapid than the debromination of the monobrominated phenols. Ampicillin and chloramphenicol inhibited activity, suggesting that dehalogenation was mediated by bacteria. Characterization of the debrominating methanogenic consortia by using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP) and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis indicated that different 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) phylotypes were enriched on the different halogenated substrates. Sponge-associated microorganisms enriched on organobromine compounds had distinct 16S rDNA TRFLP patterns and were most closely related to the delta subgroup of the proteobacteria. The presence of homologous reductive dehalogenase gene motifs in the sponge-associated microorganisms suggested that reductive dehalogenation might be coupled to dehalorespiration.