Violence victimization in Latina/o/x young adults: The multiplicative effects of cultural and high betrayal trauma.

Latinas/os/xs experience pervasive rates of interpersonal violence victimization while also experiencing frequent discrimination and societal trauma (e.g., hate crimes). Betrayal trauma theory and cultural betrayal trauma theory provide frameworks for examining the distinct harm of violence perpetrated by a close other and by a member of the same marginalized group(s), respectively. However, no known research has examined the concurrent impacts of both forms of betrayal among Latina/o/x young adults. The current study examined the unique and multiplicative effects of high betrayal trauma (i.e., violence perpetrated by a close other) and cultural betrayal trauma (i.e., violence perpetrated by someone of the same marginalized group(s)) on psychological and physical health symptoms in Latina/o/x young adults. Latina/o/x undergraduate students (N = 208) participated in a 60-minute online survey assessing violence victimization, psychological symptoms, and physical health. Rates of victimization (91.35%, n = 190) were high across differing forms of violence. Interactions of high betrayal trauma and cultural betrayal trauma were significant for psychological, physical, and anxiety symptoms. Although there were no significant simple effects, the pattern of results suggested that being assaulted by someone who shares one's Latina/o/x identity was more strongly associated with psychological and physical symptoms when participants had not been assaulted by someone with whom they were close. The current study highlights the importance of culturally competent therapy for Latina/o/x survivors that incorporates the interpersonal and cultural contexts of victimization.

Social Reactions Received by Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence: A Qualitative Validation of Key Constructs From the Social Reactions Questionnaire.

The majority of intimate partner violence survivors tell at least one person about the abuse, and the reactions of these support providers can have a profound impact on survivors' recovery. In recent years, the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ) has become the predominant measure of social reactions toward intimate partner violence survivors, but the SRQ was developed based on the experiences of sexual assault survivors only. To determine how well intimate partner violence survivors' descriptions of social reactions from informal support providers align with constructs in the SRQ, we examined qualitative interview data about survivors' interactions with informal support providers obtained from a larger study with 113 female survivors of intimate partner violence. Excerpts were coded inductively, and a total of 12 types of social reactions emerged. Seven of these social reactions aligned with existing social reactions in the SRQ: (a) emotional support, (b) tangible aid, (c) blame, (d) took control, (e) treated differently, (f) egocentric reactions, and (g) distraction. An additional six reactions emerged as separate constructs, including (h) minimization, (i) told to leave, (j) advice, (k) interventions, and (l) indifference. These findings highlight the need for direct interventions with friends and family members to improve social reactions toward intimate partner violence survivors.

The ties that bind: understanding the impact of sexual assault disclosure on survivors' relationships with friends, family, and partners.

A growing body of research suggests that the type of social reactions sexual assault survivors receive from others can have a profound impact on their health and well-being. Far less is known about the impact of social reactions on the ensuing relationship between survivors and the people to whom they disclose. The current study sought to address this gap in the literature by examining the impact of disclosure on survivors' relationships with friends, family members, and romantic partners. A total of 76 rape survivors described 153 different disclosures to informal support providers. Qualitative analysis suggested that most relationships either were strengthened or remained strong following the disclosure, but a substantial number of survivors described relationships that deteriorated or remained poor following the disclosure. These outcomes were related to the quality of the relationship prior to the disclosure and to survivors' perceptions of the reactions they received during the disclosure. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

Rehearsing for real life: the impact of the InterACT Sexual Assault Prevention Program on self-reported likelihood of engaging in bystander interventions.

The interACT Sexual Assault Prevention Program is an interactive, skill-building performance based on the pedagogy of Augusto Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed. A longitudinal evaluation of this program compared pretest, posttest, and 3-month follow-up data from 509 university student participants. Results suggested that the interACT performance was successful in increasing participants' beliefs about the effectiveness of bystander interventions and the self-rated likelihood that participants would engage in bystander interventions in the future. Differences in both overall ratings and rates of change were noted. Implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.

Enhancing Latinas' participation in research on sexual assault: cultural considerations in the design and implementation of research in the Latino community.

To provide a more complete picture of the prevalence, impact, and treatment of sexual assault among Latinas, researchers must begin to develop and employ culturally competent recruitment and data-collection procedures that can facilitate participation and disclosure. In this article, we sought to synthesize recommendations from research with Latino populations, community-based and participatory action research, and research on sexual assault to provide a list of suggestions for conducting culturally competent research about sexual assault with Latino populations. Innovative examples from our own focus group study with Latinas are provided throughout.

To tell or not to tell: the impact of disclosure on sexual assault survivors' recovery.

There is a growing body of research examining the disclosure of sexual assault. But the focus on time to first disclosure does not capture the whole picture. Survivors also differ in how long they continue to disclose, to whom they disclose, and the types of reactions received during disclosure. To provide a more comprehensive view of disclosure, this study sought to identify patterns of disclosure among a sample of 103 female sexual assault survivors recruited from the community. This study also sought to identify characteristics of each disclosure pattern, differences in how each disclosure pattern tends to unfold (e.g., who is told and how they react), and differences in how these disclosure patterns are related to physical and mental health outcomes. Results revealed four distinct disclosure patterns: nondisclosers, slow starters, crisis disclosers, and ongoing disclosers. Assault characteristics and rape acknowledgment distinguished nondisclosers and slow starters from the other two disclosure groups. Slow starters were also less likely to disclose to police and medical personnel and received negative reactions less frequently while nondisclosers experienced more symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress than other groups. Implications of these findings for future research and practice are discussed.

"What has it been like for you to talk with me today?": the impact of participating in interview research on rape survivors.

The purpose of this project was to conduct a qualitative study of how participating in in-depth interviews impacted rape survivors. These interviews contained both open-ended, free response section and closed-ended, standardized assessments. The implementation of the interviews was informed by principles of feminist interviewing, which emphasized reducing hierarchy between the interviewer and interviewee, providing information and resources, and creating an emotionally supportive and compassionate setting. Narrative data were analyzed from rape survivors (N = 92) regarding how they were affected by participating in these interviews. Results suggested that the overwhelming majority of survivors found the interview to be a helpful, supportive, and insightful experience. Additional analyses revealed that the feminist interviewing principles were noticed and appreciated by the participants and contributed to their overall positive participation outcomes.

Spirituality and well-being: the relationship between religious coping and recovery from sexual assault.

Despite a growing body of literature documenting beneficial outcomes of religious coping, there are virtually no studies examining sexual assault survivors' use of religious coping. To fill this gap in the literature, the current study examines predictors and outcomes of positive and negative religious coping among 100 sexual assault survivors who believed in God. Results suggested that African American survivors were more likely to use both forms of religious coping than survivors from other ethnicities. Yet, results also suggest that positive religious coping is related to higher levels of psychological well-being and lower levels of depression, whereas negative religious coping is related to higher levels of depression, regardless of ethnicity. The only outcome where ethnicity makes a difference is posttraumatic growth with a stronger relationship between positive religious coping and posttraumatic growth among Caucasian survivors space. The implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

Training interviewers for research on sexual violence: a qualitative study of rape survivors' recommendations for interview practice.

Face-to-face interviewing is a common data collection technique in violence against women research. To guide the development of interviewer training programs, the authors conducted an empirical study on adult rape survivors' recommendations for interview practice. They asked survivors what interviewers should know about rape and how they should interact with participants. Data from 92 survivors revealed that interviewer training needs to emphasize diversity so that researchers are capable of working effectively with individuals with different life circumstances. The survivors also emphasized that interviewers need to show warmth and compassion and allow them to exercise choice and control during the interview process.

Being silenced: the impact of negative social reactions on the disclosure of rape.

Rape survivors who speak out about their assault experiences are often punished for doing so when they are subjected to negative reactions from support providers. These negative reactions may thereby serve a silencing function, leading some rape survivors to stop talking about their experiences to anyone at all. The current study sought to examine this worst case scenario. Focusing on the qualitative narratives of eight rape survivors who initially disclosed the assault but then stopped disclosing for a significant period of time, this study sought to provide an in-depth description of how negative reactions silenced these survivors. Three routes to silence were identified: 1) negative reactions from professionals led survivors to question whether future disclosures would be effective; 2) negative reactions from friends and family reinforced feelings of self-blame; and 3) negative reactions from either source reinforced uncertainty about whether their experiences qualified as rape. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Doing community research without a community: creating safe space for rape survivors.

This paper describes how the values of a feminist research team influenced methodological decisions in a study of rape survivors. Building upon concepts from community psychology and urban sociology, the authors created a community-based research design that respected the emotional needs of rape survivors without sacrificing methodological rigor. We developed relationships with community members in diverse settings, such as nail and hair salons, child care centers, churches, and bookstores, to advertise the study and recruit participants. Consistent with feminist approaches to interviewing, our goal was to create a safe setting for survivors to tell their stories. Although the purpose of this study was research rather than intervention, most survivors reported that participating in these interviews was healing. Our experiences in this project suggest that allowing values to influence the process of research may have beneficial outcomes for both researchers and participants.

The impact of rape on women's sexual health risk behaviors.

This study used cluster analysis to identify three patterns of sexual health risk behaviors in a sample of adult rape survivors (N=102). Women in the 1st cluster (high risk) reported substantial increases from pre- to postrape in their frequency of sexual activity, number of sexual partners, infrequency of condom use, and frequency of using alcohol and/or drugs during sex. The 2nd cluster (moderate risk) reported increases in frequency of sexual activity and number of partners but mitigated that risk with increased condom use. Survivors in the 3rd cluster (low risk) indicated that their sexual health behaviors had become much less risky postrape. An ecological model predicting cluster membership revealed that individual-level and contextual factors predict patterns of risk behaviors.

The relationship between adult sexual assault and prostitution: an exploratory analysis.

Previous research has established a link between childhood sexual abuse and engaging in prostitution as an adult. The purpose of this study was to extend this literature by exploring whether being raped as an adult is associated with exchanging sex for money. Interviews with 102 rape survivors in a major metropolitan area revealed that 23.5% had engaged in prostitution post-rape. Those who had exchanged sex for money were more likely to be women of color, to have a high school education or less, to be unemployed, and to have children to support, than those who had not engaged in prostitution post-assault. The prostitution subsample also had significantly higher levels of psychological distress, physical health symptomatology, and substance use. Survivors were asked whether and how the rape was associated with engaging in prostitution: most (75%) stated that they felt it was related to the assault. The most commonly cited reason for engaging in prostitution by these survivors was that they were trying to regain some control over their lives and their bodies; exchanging sex for money was seen as one way to control men's access to them. Implications for future research on victimization and prostitution are discussed.