Damage to tropical forests caused by cyclones is driven by wind speed but mediated by topographical exposure and tree characteristics.

Each year, an average of 45 tropical cyclones affect coastal areas and potentially impact forests. The proportion of the most intense cyclones has increased over the past four decades and is predicted to continue to do so. Yet, it remains uncertain how topographical exposure and tree characteristics can mediate the damage caused by increasing wind speed. Here, we compiled empirical data on the damage caused by 11 cyclones occurring over the past 40 years, from 74 forest plots representing tropical regions worldwide, encompassing field data for 22,176 trees and 815 species. We reconstructed the wind structure of those tropical cyclones to estimate the maximum sustained wind speed (MSW) and wind direction at the studied plots. Then, we used a causal inference framework combined with Bayesian generalised linear mixed models to understand and quantify the causal effects of MSW, topographical exposure to wind (EXP), tree size (DBH) and species wood density (ρ) on the proportion of damaged trees at the community level, and on the probability of snapping or uprooting at the tree level. The probability of snapping or uprooting at the tree level and, hence, the proportion of damaged trees at the community level, increased with increasing MSW, and with increasing EXP accentuating the damaging effects of cyclones, in particular at higher wind speeds. Higher ρ decreased the probability of snapping and to a lesser extent of uprooting. Larger trees tended to have lower probabilities of snapping but increased probabilities of uprooting. Importantly, the effect of ρ decreasing the probabilities of snapping was more marked for smaller than larger trees and was further accentuated at higher MSW. Our work emphasises how local topography, tree size and species wood density together mediate cyclone damage to tropical forests, facilitating better predictions of the impacts of such disturbances in an increasingly windier world.

Exploration capacity versus specific enzymatic activity of ectomycorrhizas in response to primary productivity and soil phosphorus availability in Bornean tropical rainforests.

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are functionally important in biogeochemical cycles in tropical ecosystems. Extracellular enzymatic activity of ECM on a ground-area basis is the product of two attributes; exploration capacity (ECM surface-area) and specific enzymatic activity. Here, we elucidated which attribute better explained the ECM enzymatic activity in response to different levels of soil phosphorus (P) and Nitrogen (N) availability in five Bornean tropical rainforests. We determined the surface area of ECM root tips as well as the enzymatic activities per ECM surface area for carbon (C), N and P degrading enzymes in each site. We evaluated the relationship of ECM enzyme activities with the resource availabilities of C (Above-ground net primary production; ANPP), N, and P of ECM by a generalized linear mixed model. The ECM enzymatic activities on a ground-area basis were more significantly determined by specific enzymatic activity than by the exploration capacity. Specific enzymatic activities were generally negatively affected by C (ANPP) and soil P availability. ECM fungi enhance the specific enzyme activity rather than the exploration capacity to maintain the capacity of nutrient acquisition. The less dependence of ECM fungi on the exploration capacity in these forests may be related to the limitation of C supply from host trees. We highlighted the adaptive mechanisms of ECM fungi on nutrient acquisition in tropical ecosystems through the response of enzymatic activity to nutrient availability across the elements.

Consistent patterns of common species across tropical tree communities.

Trees structure the Earth's most biodiverse ecosystem, tropical forests. The vast number of tree species presents a formidable challenge to understanding these forests, including their response to environmental change, as very little is known about most tropical tree species. A focus on the common species may circumvent this challenge. Here we investigate abundance patterns of common tree species using inventory data on 1,003,805 trees with trunk diameters of at least 10 cm across 1,568 locations1-6 in closed-canopy, structurally intact old-growth tropical forests in Africa, Amazonia and Southeast Asia. We estimate that 2.2%, 2.2% and 2.3% of species comprise 50% of the tropical trees in these regions, respectively. Extrapolating across all closed-canopy tropical forests, we estimate that just 1,053 species comprise half of Earth's 800 billion tropical trees with trunk diameters of at least 10 cm. Despite differing biogeographic, climatic and anthropogenic histories7, we find notably consistent patterns of common species and species abundance distributions across the continents. This suggests that fundamental mechanisms of tree community assembly may apply to all tropical forests. Resampling analyses show that the most common species are likely to belong to a manageable list of known species, enabling targeted efforts to understand their ecology. Although they do not detract from the importance of rare species, our results open new opportunities to understand the world's most diverse forests, including modelling their response to environmental change, by focusing on the common species that constitute the majority of their trees.

Light and nutrient limitations for tree growth on young versus old soils in a Bornean tropical montane forest.

We examined forest and tree responses to decreasing nutrient availability with soil aging in a species-rich tropical montane rain forest on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. Community composition and structure and tree growth rates were compared between two 1 ha plots on nutrient-rich young soil versus nutrient-deficient old soil. Myrtaceae and Fagaceae dominated both plots. With soil aging, the dominance of Lauraceae, stem density, basal area and aboveground biomass decreased, and the forest understory became brighter. Some dominant taxa on the old soil (Podocarpaceae and the genus Tristaniopsis in Myrtaceae) were virtually absent on the young soil; this was attributed to light limitation in the understory. Growth rates of understory trees were lower on the young soil, whereas those of canopy trees were lower on the old soil. This suggested that the growth of understory trees was limited by light on the young soil, whereas that of canopy trees was limited by nutrients on the old soil. Of the eight species that were abundant in both plots, the dominance of five species was considerably lower on the old soil, four of which also exhibited decreased maximum sizes and lower growth rates. The remaining three species showed similar dominance across plots without a decline in growth rates, although they exhibited decreased maximum sizes on the old soil. These analyses demonstrated divergent responses of species to the soil-age gradient. We suggest that the differential responses of species to decreasing nutrient availability with a concomitant increase in understory light levels explain floristic turnover with soil aging.

Long-term thermal sensitivity of Earth's tropical forests.

The sensitivity of tropical forest carbon to climate is a key uncertainty in predicting global climate change. Although short-term drying and warming are known to affect forests, it is unknown if such effects translate into long-term responses. Here, we analyze 590 permanent plots measured across the tropics to derive the equilibrium climate controls on forest carbon. Maximum temperature is the most important predictor of aboveground biomass (-9.1 megagrams of carbon per hectare per degree Celsius), primarily by reducing woody productivity, and has a greater impact per °C in the hottest forests (>32.2°C). Our results nevertheless reveal greater thermal resilience than observations of short-term variation imply. To realize the long-term climate adaptation potential of tropical forests requires both protecting them and stabilizing Earth's climate.

Phylogenetic classification of the world's tropical forests.

Knowledge about the biogeographic affinities of the world's tropical forests helps to better understand regional differences in forest structure, diversity, composition, and dynamics. Such understanding will enable anticipation of region-specific responses to global environmental change. Modern phylogenies, in combination with broad coverage of species inventory data, now allow for global biogeographic analyses that take species evolutionary distance into account. Here we present a classification of the world's tropical forests based on their phylogenetic similarity. We identify five principal floristic regions and their floristic relationships: (i) Indo-Pacific, (ii) Subtropical, (iii) African, (iv) American, and (v) Dry forests. Our results do not support the traditional neo- versus paleotropical forest division but instead separate the combined American and African forests from their Indo-Pacific counterparts. We also find indications for the existence of a global dry forest region, with representatives in America, Africa, Madagascar, and India. Additionally, a northern-hemisphere Subtropical forest region was identified with representatives in Asia and America, providing support for a link between Asian and American northern-hemisphere forests.

Author Correction: Long-term carbon sink in Borneo's forests halted by drought and vulnerable to edges.

The original version of this Article contained an error in the third sentence of the abstract and incorrectly read "Here, using long-term plot monitoring records of up to half a century, we find that intact forests in Borneo gained 0.43 Mg C ha-1 year-1 (95% CI 0.14-0.72, mean period 1988-2010) above-ground live biomass", rather than the correct "Here, using long-term plot monitoring records of up to half a century, we find that intact forests in Borneo gained 0.43 Mg C ha-1 year-1 (95% CI 0.14-0.72, mean period 1988-2010) in above-ground live biomass carbon". This has now been corrected in both the PDF and HTML versions of the Article.

Long-term carbon sink in Borneo's forests halted by drought and vulnerable to edge effects.

Less than half of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions remain in the atmosphere. While carbon balance models imply large carbon uptake in tropical forests, direct on-the-ground observations are still lacking in Southeast Asia. Here, using long-term plot monitoring records of up to half a century, we find that intact forests in Borneo gained 0.43 Mg C ha-1 per year (95% CI 0.14-0.72, mean period 1988-2010) above-ground live biomass. These results closely match those from African and Amazonian plot networks, suggesting that the world's remaining intact tropical forests are now en masse out-of-equilibrium. Although both pan-tropical and long-term, the sink in remaining intact forests appears vulnerable to climate and land use changes. Across Borneo the 1997-1998 El Niño drought temporarily halted the carbon sink by increasing tree mortality, while fragmentation persistently offset the sink and turned many edge-affected forests into a carbon source to the atmosphere.

Diversity and carbon storage across the tropical forest biome.

Tropical forests are global centres of biodiversity and carbon storage. Many tropical countries aspire to protect forest to fulfil biodiversity and climate mitigation policy targets, but the conservation strategies needed to achieve these two functions depend critically on the tropical forest tree diversity-carbon storage relationship. Assessing this relationship is challenging due to the scarcity of inventories where carbon stocks in aboveground biomass and species identifications have been simultaneously and robustly quantified. Here, we compile a unique pan-tropical dataset of 360 plots located in structurally intact old-growth closed-canopy forest, surveyed using standardised methods, allowing a multi-scale evaluation of diversity-carbon relationships in tropical forests. Diversity-carbon relationships among all plots at 1 ha scale across the tropics are absent, and within continents are either weak (Asia) or absent (Amazonia, Africa). A weak positive relationship is detectable within 1 ha plots, indicating that diversity effects in tropical forests may be scale dependent. The absence of clear diversity-carbon relationships at scales relevant to conservation planning means that carbon-centred conservation strategies will inevitably miss many high diversity ecosystems. As tropical forests can have any combination of tree diversity and carbon stocks both require explicit consideration when optimising policies to manage tropical carbon and biodiversity.

An estimate of the number of tropical tree species.

The high species richness of tropical forests has long been recognized, yet there remains substantial uncertainty regarding the actual number of tropical tree species. Using a pantropical tree inventory database from closed canopy forests, consisting of 657,630 trees belonging to 11,371 species, we use a fitted value of Fisher's alpha and an approximate pantropical stem total to estimate the minimum number of tropical forest tree species to fall between ∼ 40,000 and ∼ 53,000, i.e., at the high end of previous estimates. Contrary to common assumption, the Indo-Pacific region was found to be as species-rich as the Neotropics, with both regions having a minimum of ∼ 19,000-25,000 tree species. Continental Africa is relatively depauperate with a minimum of ∼ 4,500-6,000 tree species. Very few species are shared among the African, American, and the Indo-Pacific regions. We provide a methodological framework for estimating species richness in trees that may help refine species richness estimates of tree-dependent taxa.

Ecosystem impacts of folivory and frugivory by Japanese macaques in two temperate forests in Yakushima.

Comparing animal consumption to plant primary production provides a means of assessing an animal's impact on the ecosystem and an evaluation of resource limitation. Here, we compared annual fruit and leaf consumption by Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) relative to the annual production of these foods in the lowlands and highlands of Yakushima Island, Japan. We estimated consumption by macaques by the direct observation of macaque groups for 1 year in each habitat. We estimated leaf production as the sum of leaf litter fall (corrected for the effect of translocated organic and inorganic matter) and folivory by insects (assumed to be 10%) and by macaques. We estimated fruit production as the sum of fruit litter fall and consumption by birds (estimated by the seed fall) and macaques. The impact of macaque folivory at the community level was negligible relative to production (∼0.04%) compared with folivory by insects (assumed to be 10%); however, for some species, macaque folivory reached up to 10.1% of production. Tree species on which macaques fed did not decline in abundance over 13 years, suggesting that their folivory did not influence tree species dynamics. For the three major fleshy-fruited species in the highland site, macaques consumed a considerable portion of total fruit production (6-40%), rivaling the consumption by birds (32-75%). We conclude that at the community level, macaque folivory was negligible compared with the leaf production, but frugivory was not.

Canopy structure of tropical and sub-tropical rain forests in relation to conifer dominance analysed with a portable LIDAR system.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Globally, conifer dominance is restricted to nutient-poor habitats in colder, drier or waterlogged environments, probably due to competition with angiosperms. Analysis of canopy structure is important for understanding the mechanism of plant coexistence in relation to competition for light. Most conifers are shade intolerant, and often have narrow, deep, conical crowns. In this study it is predicted that conifer-admixed forests have less distinct upper canopies and more undulating canopy surfaces than angiosperm-dominated forests. METHODS: By using a ground-based, portable light detection and ranging (LIDAR) system, canopy structure was quantified for old-growth evergreen rainforests with varying dominance of conifers along altitudinal gradients (200-3100 m a.s.l.) on tropical and sub-tropical mountains (Mount Kinabalu, Malaysian Borneo and Yakushima Island, Japan) that have different conifer floras. KEY RESULTS: Conifers dominated at higher elevations on both mountains (Podocarpaceae and Araucariaceae on Kinabalu and Cupressaceae and Pinaceae on Yakushima), but conifer dominance also varied with soil/substrate conditions on Kinabalu. Conifer dominance was associated with the existence of large-diameter conifers. Forests with higher conifer dominance showed a canopy height profile (CHP) more skewed towards the understorey on both Kinabalu and Yakushima. In contrast, angiosperm-dominated forests had a CHP skewed towards upper canopy, except for lowland dipterocarp forests and a sub-alpine scrub dominated by small-leaved Leptospermum recurvum (Myrtaceae) on Kinabalu. Forests with a less dense upper canopy had more undulating outer canopy surfaces. Mixed conifer-angiosperm forests on Yakushima and dipterocarp forests on Kinabalu showed similar canopy structures. CONCLUSIONS: The results generally supported the prediction, suggesting that lower growth of angiosperm trees (except L. recurvum on Kinabalu) in cold and nutrient-poor environments results in a sparser upper canopy, which allows shade-intolerant conifers to co-occur with angiosperm trees either as emergents or as codominants in the open canopy.

Soils on exposed Sunda shelf shaped biogeographic patterns in the equatorial forests of Southeast Asia.

The marked biogeographic difference between western (Malay Peninsula and Sumatra) and eastern (Borneo) Sundaland is surprising given the long time that these areas have formed a single landmass. A dispersal barrier in the form of a dry savanna corridor during glacial maxima has been proposed to explain this disparity. However, the short duration of these dry savanna conditions make it an unlikely sole cause for the biogeographic pattern. An additional explanation might be related to the coarse sandy soils of central Sundaland. To test these two nonexclusive hypotheses, we performed a floristic cluster analysis based on 111 tree inventories from Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. We then identified the indicator genera for clusters that crossed the central Sundaland biogeographic boundary and those that did not cross and tested whether drought and coarse-soil tolerance of the indicator genera differed between them. We found 11 terminal floristic clusters, 10 occurring in Borneo, 5 in Sumatra, and 3 in Peninsular Malaysia. Indicator taxa of clusters that occurred across Sundaland had significantly higher coarse-soil tolerance than did those from clusters that occurred east or west of central Sundaland. For drought tolerance, no such pattern was detected. These results strongly suggest that exposed sandy sea-bed soils acted as a dispersal barrier in central Sundaland. However, we could not confirm the presence of a savanna corridor. This finding makes it clear that proposed biogeographic explanations for plant and animal distributions within Sundaland, including possible migration routes for early humans, need to be reevaluated.

On the relationships between leaf-litter lignin and net primary productivity in tropical rain forests.

We investigated if tropical rainforest trees produced more-lignified leaves in less productive environments using forests on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. Our investigation was based on two earlier suggestions that slower litter decomposition occurs under less productive forests and that trees under resource limitation invest a large amount of carbon as lignin as a defense substance to minimize the loss from herbivores. When nine forests at different altitudes (700-3100 m) and soil conditions (derived from sedimentary or ultrabasic rocks) but with the same gentle relief position were compared, the concentrations of leaf-litter lignin were positively correlated with litterfall rates and leaf-litter nitrogen concentrations. These patterns would be reinforced in intact leaves if the effects of resorption at the time of leaf shedding were taken into account, because greater magnitude of resorption of mobile elements but not of lignin would occur in less productive environments (i.e. dilution of lignin in intact leaves). These results did not support earlier suggestions to explain the variation of leaf-litter lignin. Instead, we suggest that lower lignin contents are adaptive to recycle minerals without retarding decomposition in less productive environments.

Changes in biomass, productivity and decomposition along topographical gradients under different geological conditions in tropical lower montane forests on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo.

We have examined how the structure and function of a forest ecosystem change with topography (lower-slope versus ridge) and how the changes are modified by nutrient availability depending on geological substrate (Quaternary and Tertiary sedimentary rocks and ultrabasic rock) in the tropical montane rain forests of Mt. Kinabalu (Borneo) where climate is humid and aseasonal. Reflecting the difference in site age and parent rock, the pool size of soluble-P and inorganic-N in topsoil decreased from Quaternary sedimentary >Tertiary sedimentary >ultrabasic rock on the lower-slope, and they decreased from the lower-slope to the ridge on all substrates. Forest structural attributes [stature, above-ground biomass, and leaf area index (LAI)] decreased in the order of Quaternary sedimentary >Tertiary sedimentary >ultrabasic rock in association with soil nutrients on the lower-slopes, and decreased upslope consistently on each of the three substrates. Functional attributes [above-ground net primary productivity (ANPP) and decomposition rate] demonstrated similar patterns to structure. ANPP significantly correlated with LAI among the six sites, while net assimilation rate (ANPP divided by LAI assuming an even productivity between above vs below-ground system) was nearly constant. Therefore, ANPP could be explained primarily by LAI. Topographical change in LAI could be explained by leaf mass per area (LMA) combined with stand-level leaf biomass. LMA increased upslope on all substrates in association with the decrease in individual leaf area. Stand-level leaf biomass decreased upslope on all substrates but the Tertiary sedimentary rock. Our study demonstrated that topography and geological substrates interactively affected forest structure and processes. The effect of topography on forest structure and processes was greater on nutrient-rich substrates than on poor substrates, and the effect of geological substrate was greater on lower-slopes than on ridges.