Safety and health program assessment in relation to the number and type of safety and health violations.

The Ohio Bureau of Employment Services (OBES), through the Occupational Safety and Health Administration On-Site Consultation Program, provides safety and health (S&H) consultation services to small high-hazard companies. During a full-service consultation, the S&H Program Assessment Worksheet (Form 33) is completed and the S&H violations are determined. Form 33 consists of 25 indicators, each with a score of 0 (lowest) to 4 (highest) to evaluate a portion of the S&H program. To examine the hypothesis that employers with a higher score on their S&H program would have fewer S&H violations, a study collected and analyzed data from records maintained in the archives of OBES. Of 534 full-service site visits performed between June 1995 and December 1996, 107 case files were complete and appropriate for this study. Data analysis revealed that the number of serious violations (SV) and the number of regulatory violations (RV) were significantly (p < 0.01) correlated to all 25 indicators on the S&H Program Assessment Worksheet, whereas the number of other-than-serious violations (OSV) were significantly (p < 0.05) correlated to only 15 indicators. The best predictors of the number of SV were the indicators of Timely Hazard Control and Emergency Planning and Preparation; best predictors of RV were the indicators of Timely Hazard Control and Accountability; and best predictors of OSV were the indicators of Hazard Identification (Self-Inspection) and Emergency Planning and Preparation (Equipment). Employers who scored higher on the indicators of the quality of their S&H programs had fewer S&H violations, and the indicators of Hazard Identification, Timely Hazard Control, and Emergency Planning and Preparation showed the highest influence in reducing violations.

Characterizing formaldehyde emission rates in a gross anatomy laboratory.

The evaporation of formaldehyde from cadavers in gross anatomy laboratories can produce high exposures among students and instructors. To understand the system that produces exposures and to plan for implementing control options, the generation of formaldehyde vapors must be characterized. A gross anatomy laboratory with 47 dissecting tables was studied during 15 lab sessions over a period of 16 weeks. Area concentrations were measured using National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) method 3500. Average daily area concentrations in the laboratory ranged from 0.635 to 1.82 mg/m3. The ventilation was characterized on three separate days. The laboratory had a general ventilation rate of 9.8 air changes per hour. There was no local exhaust ventilation. The concentration measurements were used in a mass balance model along with ventilation rates to determine formaldehyde emission rates. The daily average formaldehyde emission rate from all sources in the laboratory ranged from 95.2-274 mg/min, with an average of 148 mg/min over the course of the study. This total emission rate was used along with the number of dissecting tables to develop an emission factor of 3.15 mg/min per table. The emission factor is a generalizable tool that can be used in laboratories of various sizes to predict emission rates and develop control strategies. This emission factor is applicable where the cadavers are prepared with similar embalming fluid consisting of approximately 10 percent formaldehyde.

Utilization of health and safety consulting services of the Ohio Bureau of Workers' Compensation by small businesses.

The Division of Safety and Hygiene (DSH) of the Ohio Bureau of Workers' Compensation (OBWC) provides health and safety consulting services to all businesses in Ohio insured by OBWC. It has been conceptualized that small companies in Ohio do not use health and safety consultative services to the same extent as non-small companies. To determine the validity of this belief, this study was conducted to analyze the records of the DSH for the years 1991-1995 in the Division's Southeast Region which contained a total of 281,041 insured companies. Of the 5977 companies utilizing the health and safety services of DSH and recording their number of employees, 65.3 percent were "small," defined as any company with less than 20 employees. Specific services used by businesses included industrial hygiene (small, 3.4% vs. non-small, 6.4%), ergonomics (0.7% vs. 2.8%), engineering such as ventilation or machine guarding (0.6% vs. 1.7%), construction safety (26.7% vs. 3.9%), and general safety such as implementing a safety program (31.4% vs. 22.4%). In conclusion, industrial hygiene, ergonomics, and engineering service utilization were significantly lower for the small businesses than for the non-small businesses, whereas safety service utilization was significantly higher for the small business. Improvement in the system of record-keeping and education/encouragement in the deployment of services are recommended.

Exposure of school employees to extremely low frequency magnetic fields.

This study was initiated to determine and compare daily occupational exposure (OE) and non-occupational exposure (NOE) of three employee groups of teachers, maintenance workers and secretarial staff in a Canadian school district. The time-weighted average (TWA) individual OE for subjects ranged from 0.4-3.8 milligauss (mG), and the TWA NOE ranged from 0.2-7.1 mG. TWA OE and NOE were 1.2 mG and 1.5 mG for teachers, 1.8 mG and 1.2 mG for maintenance workers, and 2.9 mG and 2.1 mG for secretarial staff. The differences between TWA OE and NOE of each group and also among the three groups were not statistically significant. OE and NOE of secretarial staff exceeded 10 mG 9.0% and 6.4% of the time--significantly (p < 0.001) higher rates than those of OE and NOE of teachers (1.0% and 1.4%) and maintenance workers (2.8% and 0.1%). Exposures were well below recommended criteria.

A four-year follow-up study on subjective symptoms and functional capacities in workers using hand-held grinders.

Fifty-three grinders in the metal industry were re-examined 4 years after their first examination. Information about age, occupation, daily vibration exposure, drinking and smoking habits, and presence of subjective symptoms such as vibration-induced white finger (VWF), and numbness and pain in the fingers was collected during the first and second examination. Cold provocation test (10 degrees C/10 min) was also employed to evaluate disturbances in the peripheral circulatory and peripheral nerves in all subjects. The frequency-weighted vibration acceleration of various types of hand-held tools was measured. There was no subject with VWF at the first examination; however, during the course of follow-up, two cases (3.8%) of VWF with latent interval of more than 25 years were diagnosed. Prevalence of numbness in the fingers and shoulder stiffness was significantly higher at the second examination. When the prevalence of subjective symptoms was tested by the subjects' total operating time (TOT) during the 4-year follow-up period, those whose TOT was equal to or more than 2500 hours showed higher prevalence compared to the other subgroup. The paired values of recovery rate of finger skin temperature and vibration sensation threshold after the cold water immersion test were significantly different at the first and second examination. On average, the diminution of hand-grip force during the 4-year follow-up course was 7.4%; the difference being significant at 0.01 level. Significant differences in the paired data of pinching power and tapping ability could be detected. The frequency-weighted vibration acceleration of various tools was in the range of 1.1-4.6 m/s2. It was concluded that: (1) prolonged occupational exposure to the vibration of hand-held grinding tools should be considered as a risk factor causing disturbances in the hand-arm system of the operators; (2) the results of recovery rate of finger skin temperature and the vibration sensation threshold seemed to be appropriate indicators for the assessment of peripheral vascular and peripheral nerve disturbances in workers exposed to hand-arm vibration; and (3) to reduce the subjects' physical stress, attention should be paid to ergonomic factors.

Incident trends for a hazardous waste cleanup company.

Published reports to assess incidents in hazardous waste operations are scarce. This study was designed to evaluate incident trends in a relatively large hazardous waste cleanup company. The data for 6.5 years, winter 1990 through spring 1996, provided 1848 incident reports with 87% involving injury/illness cases. Over 75% of injury/illness incidents were due to mechanical agents, 10% occurred because of chemical exposure, 5% involved poisonous plants and insect bites, 2% resulted from temperature extremes, 1% were from cumulative injuries/illnesses, and in 7% the agent was not recorded. Almost 31% of injuries were related to the upper extremities, with the fingers most often injured, followed by the hands. Lower back strain cases constituted 11% of injuries, ankle/foot/toe cases 9%, and knee cases 5%. Recovery technicians (laborers) had the highest frequency of injury/illness incidents (52%), followed by supervisors (15%) and heavy machinery operators (10%). The incidence rates (IRs) for all recordable incidents ranged from 11.9 for the second quarter of 1990 down to 1.2 for the fourth quarter of 1995 with a mean (SD) and median of 6.3 (3.0) and 6.1, respectively. For the time period studied, IRs decreased significantly (p < 0.01). It was concluded that hands-on experience in the field and improvements in the health and safety program of the company--including expanding its focus (originally the prevention of chemical exposure) to include construction safety--reduced the incidents considerably. Introduction of new regulations has also contributed to this trend.

Diurnal and seasonal variations of radon levels, effects of climatic conditions, and radon exposure assessment in a former uranium metal production facility.

Storage of radon-producing material in two silos and two waste pits is one of the major environmental and occupational issues at a former uranium production facility, now a Superfund site. In addition, up to 100 metric tons of thorium is stored on the northeast side of the site. Concentrations of radium up to 17,600 Bq g(-1) (477,000 pCi g(-1)) or higher for silos and up to 45 Bq g(-1) (1,200 pCi g(-1)) for waste pits have been reported. This study was conducted to identify factors and climatic conditions that contribute to higher radon levels and to assess workers' exposure at the site. Data covering a 12-mo period were compiled from monitoring hourly real-time radon levels at indoor (within 3 buildings) and outdoor (at 14 on-site and 2 off-site monitoring stations) locations and from hourly site-specific meteorological information. The ranges of radon levels were as follows: 1.8-3,655 Bq m(-3) (0.05-98.8 pCi L(-1)) outdoor on-site, 3.7-329 Bq m(-3) (0.1-8.9 pCi L(-1)) outdoor off-site, and 1.8-111 Bq m(-3) (0.05-3.0 pCi L(-1)) indoor on-site. Only radon levels in the vicinity of the storage silos were significantly higher than levels off-site. Radon concentrations showed diurnal variations, with maximum levels occurring in the early morning and minimum levels in the afternoon. Seasonal variation was also observed, with radon levels higher during the summer through early fall and lower during the late winter through spring. Wind speed, relative humidity, and wind direction appeared to be the most significant predictors of radon concentration. The estimated radon dose to workers, calculated by using exposure models and annual average levels of radon in the work area, was below recommended exposure limits. These results suggest that the emission control methods at this site have been effective in maintaining environmental radon contamination and workers' exposure at acceptable levels.

Factors contributing to discomfort or dissatisfaction as a result of wearing personal protective equipment.

In a metal refining plant, 366 workers were interviewed to investigate factors contributing to the discomfort or dissatisfaction of wearing personal protective equipment (PPE). Up to 97.8% of these individuals used one or more types of PPE. The percentages of employees who reported their hard hats and cooling vests as comfortable were 17% and 19%, respectively. Twenty-five percent of workers felt their respirators and safety harnesses were comfortable. Safety glasses ranked at 50%, gloves 53%, and safety shoes 54% for comfort factor. The percentage of employees who tolerated their PPE (just acceptable) ranged from 27% to 52%. The most frequently cited factors contributing to discomfort or dissatisfaction of wearing PPE were related to the workers' beliefs that the PPE was not needed, created a new hazard, interfered with work, was too heavy, was hard to wear, prohibited breathing or communicating, irritated skin, put pressure on the body, and was of an undesirable type or model.

Field precision of formaldehyde sampling and analysis using NIOSH method 3500.

This study examined the field precision of National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Method 3500, also known as chromotropic acid method, in the range of exposure limit covers the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit of 0.75 ppm and the OSHA action level of 0.5 ppm airborne formaldehyde. Using this method, 78 area samples (25 sets of replicate samples) were collected in a workplace and analyzed. The concentrations of formaldehyde ranged from 0.05 to 1.72 ppm with a mean +/- standard deviation of 0.95 +/- 0.31 ppm. The precision (coefficient of variation, CV) of 25 sets of replicated samples ranged from 0.03 to 0.24 with an overall (pooled) precision of 0.09, which is in agreement with that stated in NIOSH Method 3500. In 68% of replicate samples the precision was equal to or less than 0.09. The relative accuracy of the sampling and analytical procedure used in this study was evaluated by collecting 12 sets of side-by-side replicate samples using both NIOSH Method 3500 and OSHA Method 5.2 Method 53 was used to determine whether the concentrations of formaldehyde were within the desired range. The overall mean concentrations were 0.98 +/- 0.42 for Method 3500 and 0.78 +/- 0.28 ppm for Method 5.2. These were no statistically different. The pooled CVs were 0.114 and 0.076 for Method 3500 and Method 52, respectively.

Changes in respiratory function after one and three hours of exposure to formaldehyde in non-smoking subjects.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the changes in respiratory function within one hour and three hours of exposure to formaldehyde and investigate the relation between exposure to formaldehyde and acute changes in respiratory function. METHOD: Respiratory function of 50 non-smoking medical students exposed to formaldehyde in a gross anatomy laboratory were compared with respiratory function of 36 non-exposed, non-smoking physiotherapy students. Formaldehyde concentrations were measured in the breathing zone of each exposed subject and in the general work environment. RESULTS: Formaldehyde concentrations in the breathing zone of exposed subjects generally exceeded recommended standards. On average, the variables of respiratory function of both the exposed and the control subjects increased significantly within one hour and from one to three hours after exposure. The increase in respiratory function of the exposed subjects was significantly less than that of the control subjects. There was no meaningful correlation between concentration of formaldehyde in the breathing zone and changes in the respiratory function of exposed subjects. CONCLUSION: As the increase in the respiratory function of the subjects can be attributable to normal diurnal variation, the significantly lower increase in respiratory function of the exposed group than in the control group is probably due to exposure to formaldehyde. The results of this study do not, however, support a dose-response relation.

Potential emotional and cognitive disorders associated with exposure to EMFs. A review.

1. Published studies have found neither a consistent association nor a simple dose-response relationship between exposure to EMFs and emotional and cognitive responses. 2. The inconsistency in results and lack of a simple dose-response relationship suggest that the potential association between EMFs and cognitive and emotional responses is complex, possibly restricted to specific exposure frequencies and intensities and confounded by exposure to other stressors. 3. Further work to examine the association between EMFs and cognitive and emotional responses by specific electromagnetic frequencies and intensities in the context of known sources of stress is indicated.

Exposure to isocyanates and organic solvents, and pulmonary-function changes in workers in a polyurethane molding process.

The extent of adverse health effects of isocyanates when combined with other chemicals is not well documented. This study was conducted as a 2.5-year follow-up as well as to determine daily and weekly effects of exposure to isocyanates and organic solvents on pulmonary function. The concentrations of chemicals sampled were below the recommended exposure criteria. No daily or weekly reduction in the subjects' pulmonary function was observed. The isocyanate/solvent-exposed subjects showed significant long-term reduction in their forced vital capacity (P < 0.05) and expiratory volume in 1 second (P < 0.001). No such changes were observed in non-exposed subjects or in those exposed only to organic solvents. The proportion of subjects who developed respiratory symptoms in the isocyanate-exposed group was not significantly greater than that of the non-exposed group. The results of this study indicate that long-term exposure to isocyanates, even in very low concentrations, may contribute to impaired pulmonary function.

Health and social concerns of restaurant/bar workers exposed to environmental tobacco smoke.

To survey worker reactions to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), 22 smoker and 21 nonsmoker workers from 3 restaurant/bar settings were interviewed. Workers, in particular nonsmokers, showed health and social concerns about ETS in their workplace. Exposure to ETS was also studied in these establishments. Carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations ranged from 1-23 parts per million (ppm); carbon dioxide (CO2) 100-6,000 ppm; and oxides of nitrogen were primarily nondetectable (< 0.5 ppm). Levels of CO increased gradually during the entire work shift, and the levels of CO2 increased during more crowded periods of business. Designation of non-smoking sectors in restaurant/dining areas did not seem to reduce workers' exposure to air contaminants.

Comfort of personal protective equipment.

The degree of comfort of personal protective equipment (PPE) was investigated in an automobile encapsulating plant. Up to 96.2% of employees used one or a combination of PPE. Only 8% of the workers felt their respirators were comfortable, 30% tolerated their respirators, and 62% rated them as uncomfortable. The percentage of employees who rated their PPE (other than a respirator) as comfortable ranged from 32 to 52%. For comfort factor, coveralls/aprons rated 52%, safety glasses 51%, rubber gloves 42%, and hearing protectors 36%. PPE was tolerable (just acceptable) for about 30% of the employees. To increase the effectiveness and safety of PPE, the human-factor aspects of PPE design should be emphasized more and quality improvement should cover the wearability of PPE.

Formaldehyde exposure, acute pulmonary response, and exposure control options in a gross anatomy laboratory.

Formaldehyde exposure, acute pulmonary response, and exposure control options were evaluated in a group of 34 workers in a gross anatomy laboratory. Time-weighted average (TWA) exposure to formaldehyde ranged from 0.07-2.94 parts per million (ppm) during dissecting operations. More than 94% were exposed to formaldehyde in excess of the ceiling value of 0.3 ppm recommended by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). The eight-hour TWA exposure of 31.7% of the subjects exceeded the action level of 0.5 ppm set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Reported symptoms included irritation of eye (88%), nose (74%), throat (29%), and airways (21%). Forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in 3 seconds (FEV3) decreased, and FEV1/FVC increased during the exposure. The changes of FEV3 were statistically different from those of the controls. The results strongly support the necessity for designing and testing special local exhaust-ventilated worktables with necessary flexibility for dissecting operations.

Short-term respiratory function changes in relation to workshift welding fume exposures.

The forced vital capacity (FVC), the forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and the transfer factor for the lung (TL) were measured before and after the 8-h work shift in groups of welders and non-welder controls in a shipyard. For each subject, full-shift average concentrations of welding fume constituents were evaluated. On the average, the lung function indices in both groups of welders and controls decreased from morning through afternoon. The welders demonstrated more reduction in the indices than the control group. In general, there was no significant association between the acute changes in the lung function and the daily amount of exposure to welding fume constituents or the welding environmental factors. However, the overall difference of mean diurnal variations in TL between the groups working under different ventilation condition was significant (P < 0.01). On the average, welders who did not use any ventilation system showed maximum reduction in TL value. Acute reduction of FEV1 was positively correlated (P < 0.05) with the levels of iron oxide produced during welding.

The prediction of temperatures and heat stress limits in the workplace with natural ventilation.

This paper presents a simple procedure for using the climatic factors reported by weather bureaus to predict levels of heat stress and conditions of risk in the workplace. For an aluminum reduction plant with natural ventilation, the study showed that the air temperature inside followed the same pattern of annual changes as the normal maximum ambient temperature outside the building. The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) was correlated significantly with air temperature (ta). With limited measurements, WBGT was predicted for the entire year at different locations in the shop.