Fluorescent mixed ligand copper(II) complexes of anthracene-appended Schiff bases: studies on DNA binding, nuclease activity and cytotoxicity.

A series of mixed ligand copper(ii) complexes of the type [Cu(L)(phen)(ACN)](ClO4)21-5, where L is a bidentate Schiff base ligand (N(1)-(anthracen-10-ylmethylene)-N(2)-methylethane-1,2-diamine (L1), N(1)-(anthracen-10-ylmethylene)-N(2),N(2)-dimethylethane-1,2-diamine (L2), N(1)-(anthracen-10-yl-methylene)-N(2)-ethylethane-1,2-diamine (L3), N(1)-(anthracen-10-ylmethylene)-N(2),N(2)-diethylethane-1,2-diamine (L4) and N(1)-(anthracen-10-ylmethylene)-N(3)-methylpropane-1,3-diamine (L5)) and phen is 1,10-phenanthroline, have been synthesized and characterized by spectral and analytical methods. The X-ray crystal structure of 5 reveals that the coordination geometry around Cu(ii) is square pyramidal distorted trigonal bipyramidal (τ, 0.76). The corners of the trigonal plane of the geometry are occupied by the N2 nitrogen atom of phen, the N4 nitrogen atom of L5 and the N5 nitrogen of acetonitrile while the N1 nitrogen of phen and the N3 nitrogen of L5 occupy the axial positions with an N1-Cu1-N3 bond angle of 176.0(3)°. All the complexes display a ligand field band (600-705 nm) and three less intense anthracene-based bands (345-395 nm) in solution. The Kb values calculated from absorption spectral titration of the complexes (π→π*, 250-265 nm) with Calf Thymus (CT) DNA vary in the order 5 > 4 > 3 > 2 > 1. The fluorescence intensity of the complexes (520-525 nm) decreases upon incremental addition of CT DNA, which reveals the involvement of phen rather than the appended anthracene ring in partial DNA intercalation with the DNA base stack. The extent of quenching is in agreement with the DNA binding affinities and the relative increase in the viscosity of DNA upon binding to the complexes as well. Thus 5 interacts with DNA more strongly than 4 on account of the stronger involvement in hydrophobic DNA interaction of the anthracenyl moiety, which is facilitated by the propylene ligand backbone with chair conformation. The ability of complexes (100 µM) to cleave DNA (pUC19 DNA) in 5 mM Tris-HCl/50 mM NaCl buffer at pH 7.1 in the absence of a reducing agent or light varies in the order 5 > 4 > 3 > 2 > 1, which is in conformity with their DNA binding affinities. Interestingly, cytotoxicity studies on the MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line show that the IC50 value of 5 is less than that of cisplatin for the same cell line, revealing that it can act as an effective cytotoxic drug in a time-dependent manner.

Mixed ligand copper(II) complexes of 1,10-phenanthroline with tridentate phenolate/pyridyl/(benz)imidazolyl Schiff base ligands: covalent vs non-covalent DNA binding, DNA cleavage and cytotoxicity.

A series of copper(II) complexes of the types [Cu(L)(phen)](ClO4) 1-2, where HL is a tridentate ligand with two nitrogen and one oxygen donor atoms (2NO) such as 2-(2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)ethyliminomethyl)phenol (HL1) and 2-(2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)ethyl-imino)methyl)-4-methylphenol (HL2), phen is 1,10-phenanthroline and [Cu(L)(phen)](ClO4)23-6, where L is a tridentate ligand with three nitrogen donor atoms (3N) such as (2-pyridin-2-ylethyl)pyridin-2-ylmethyleneamine (L3), 2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)ethyl)-pyridin-2-yl-methyleneamine (L4), 2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)ethyl)(1H-imidazol-2-ylmethylene)-amine (L5) and 2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)ethyl)(4,4a-dihydroquinolin-2-ylmethylene)amine (L6), has been isolated and characterized by different spectral techniques. In single crystal X-ray structures, 1 possesses square pyramidal distorted trigonal bipyramidal (SPDTBP), geometry whereas 3 and 4 possess trigonal bipyramidal distorted square pyramidal (TBDSP) geometry. UV-Vis and fluorescence spectral studies reveal that the complexes 1-6 bind non-covalently to calf thymus DNA more strongly than the corresponding covalently bound chlorido complexes [Cu(2NO)Cl] 1a-2a and [Cu(3N)Cl2] 3a-6a. On prolonged incubation, all the complexes 1-6 exhibit double strand cleavage of supercoiled (SC) plasmid DNA in the absence of an activator. Also, they exhibit cytotoxicity against human breast cancer cell lines (HBL-100) more potent than their corresponding chlorido complexes 1a-6a, and have the potential to act as efficient cytotoxic drugs.

Mixed ligand copper(II) complexes of 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline: tridentate 3N primary ligands determine DNA binding and cleavage and cytotoxicity.

A series of mononuclear mixed ligand copper(II) complexes of the type [Cu(L)(2,9-dmp)](ClO4)21-4, where L is a tridentate 3N ligand such as diethylenetriamine (L1) (1) or N-methyl-N'-(pyrid-2-yl-methyl)ethylenediamine (L2) (2) or di(2-picolyl)amine (L3) (3) or bis(pyrid-2-ylmethyl)-N-methylamine (L4) (4) and 2,9-dmp is 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline, has been isolated and characterized. The complexes 1 and 3 possess square-based pyramidal coordination geometry. Absorption spectral studies reveal that the intrinsic DNA binding affinity varies as 1>2>3>4. The higher DNA binding affinity of 1 arises from L1, which offers lower steric hindrance toward intercalation of 2,9-dmp co-ligand into DNA base pairs and is involved in hydrogen bonding interaction with DNA. Interestingly, all the complexes cleave pUC19 supercoiled DNA in the absence of an activating agent. They also exhibit oxidative (H2O2) DNA cleavage ability, which varies as 1>2>3>4, the highest cleavage efficiency of 1 being due to the largest amount of ROS it generates. The tryptophan emission-quenching experiment reveals that the stronger binding of 3 and 4 with bovine serum albumin (BSA) in the hydrophobic region, which is in line with DNA viscosity measurements. The IC50 values of 1-4 for MCF-7 breast cancer cell line are lower than that of cisplatin. Flow cytometry analysis reveals that 1 mediates the arrest of S and G2/M phases in the cell cycle progression at 24h harvesting time, which progresses into apoptosis. Hoechst 33258 staining studies indicate the higher potency of 1 to induce apoptosis.

New ruthenium(II) arene complexes of anthracenyl-appended diazacycloalkanes: effect of ligand intercalation and hydrophobicity on DNA and protein binding and cleavage and cytotoxicity.

A series of half-sandwich Ru(II) arene complexes of the type [Ru(η(6)-arene)(L)Cl](PF6) 1-4, where arene is benzene (1, 2) or p-cymene (3, 4) and L is N-methylhomopiperazine (L1) or 1-(anthracen-10-ylmethyl)-4-methylhomopiperazine (L2), has been isolated and characterized by using spectral methods. The X-ray crystal structures of 2, 3 and 4 reveal that the compounds possess a pseudo-octahedral "piano-stool" structure equipped with the arene ligand as the seat and the bidentate ligand and the chloride ion as the legs of the stool. The DNA binding affinity determined using absorption spectral titrations with CT DNA and competitive DNA binding studies varies as 4 > 2 > 3 > 1, depending upon both the arene and diazacycloalkane ligands. Complexes 2 and 4 with higher DNA binding affinities show strong hypochromism (56%) and a large red-shift (2, 10; 4, 11 nm), which reveals that the anthracenyl moiety of the ligand is stacked into the DNA base pairs and that the arene ligand hydrophobicity also dictates the DNA binding affinity. In contrast, the monocationic complexes 1 and 3 are involved in electrostatic binding in the minor groove of DNA. The enhancement in viscosities of CT DNA upon binding to 2 and 4 are higher than those for 1 and 3 supporting the DNA binding modes of interaction inferred. All the complexes cleave DNA effectively even in the absence of an external agent and the cleavage ability is enhanced in the presence of an activator like H2O2. Tryptophan quenching measurements suggest that the protein binding affinity of the complexes varies as 4 > 2 > 3 > 1, which is the same as that for DNA binding and that the fluorescence quenching of BSA occurs through a static mechanism. The positive ΔH(0) and ΔS(0) values for BSA binding of complexes indicate that the interaction between the complexes and BSA is mainly hydrophobic in nature and the energy transfer efficiency has been analysed according to the Förster non-radiative energy transfer theory. The variation in the ability of complexes to cleave BSA in the presence of H2O2, namely, 4 > 2 > 3 > 1, as revealed from SDS-PAGE is consistent with their strong hydrophobic interaction with the protein. The IC50 values of 1-4 (IC50: 1, 28.1; 2, 23.1; 3, 26.2; 4, 16.8 µM at 24 h; IC50: 1, 19.0; 2, 15.9; 3, 18.1; 4, 9.7 µM at 48 h) obtained for MCF 7 breast cancer cells indicate that they have the potency to kill cancer cells in a time dependent manner, which is similar to cisplatin. The anticancer activity of complexes has been studied by employing various biochemical methods involving different staining agents, AO/EB and Hoechst 33258, which reveal that complexes 1-4 establish a specific mode of cell death in MCF 7 breast cancer cells. The comet assay has been employed to determine the extent of DNA fragmentation in cancer cells.

Analysis of the Cytotoxic Potential of Anisomelic Acid Isolated from Anisomeles malabarica.

Anisomelic acid (AA), one of the major compounds in Anisomeles malabarica, was tested for its cytotoxicity and apoptosis-inducing potential in breast and cervical cancer cells. The MTT assay for cell viability indicated that AA is cytotoxic to all of the four cell lines tested in a dose- and duration-dependent manner. Acridine Orange & Ethidium Bromide (AO & EB) and Hoechst 33258 staining of AA-treated cells revealed typical apoptotic morphology such as condensed chromatin and formation of apoptotic bodies. The comet assay revealed DNA strand break(s), indicating that AA induces DNA damage which culminates in apoptosis. Thus, the study revealed the anti-proliferative and apoptosis-inducing properties of AA in both breast and cervical cancer cells. Therefore, anisomelic acid offers potential for application in breast and cervical cancer therapy.

Cytotoxic property of surfactant-cobalt(III) complexes on a human breast cancer cell line.

The cancer chemotherapeutic potential of surfactant-cobalt(III) complexes, cis-[Co(bpy)(2)(C(14)H(29)NH(2))Cl](ClO(4))(2)·3 H(2)O (1) and cis-[Co(phen)(2)(C(14)H(29)NH(2))Cl](ClO(4))(2)·3 H(2)O (2) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine, phen = 1,10-phenanthroline) on MCF-7 breast cancer cell was determined adopting MTT assay and specific staining techniques. The complexes affected the viability of the cells significantly and the cells succumbed to apoptosis as seen in the changes in the nuclear morphology and cytoplasmic features. Since the complex 2 appeared to be more potent, further assays were carried out on the complex 2. Single-cell electrophoresis indicated DNA damage. The translocation of phosphatidyl serine and loss of mitochondrial potential was revealed by annexin V-Cy3 staining and JC-1 staining respectively. Western blot analysis revealed up-regulation of pro-apoptotic p53 and down-regulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein. Taken together, the surfactant-cobalt(III) complex 2 would be a potential candidate for further investigation for application as a chemotherapeutic for cancers in general and estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer in particular.