The long-term effects of maternal deprivation on the number and size of inhibitory interneurons in the rat amygdala and nucleus accumbens.

Introduction: There is an increasing evidence supporting the hypothesis that traumatic experiences during early developmental periods might be associated with psychopathology later in life. Maternal deprivation (MD) in rodents has been proposed as an animal model for certain aspects of neuropsychiatric disorders. Methods: To determine whether early-life stress leads to changes in GABAergic, inhibitory interneurons in the limbic system structures, specifically the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, 9-day-old Wistar rats were exposed to a 24 h MD. On postnatal day 60 (P60), the rats were sacrificed for morphometric analysis and their brains were compared to the control group. Results: Results show that MD affect GABAergic interneurons, leading to the decrease in density and size of the calcium-binding proteins parvalbumin-, calbindin-, and calretinin-expressing interneurons in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens. Discussion: This study indicates that early stress in life leads to changes in the number and morphology of the GABAergic, inhibitory interneurons in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, most probably due to the loss of neurons during postnatal development and it further contributes to understanding the effects of maternal deprivation on brain development.

The impact of early life maternal deprivation on the perineuronal nets in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of young adult rats.

Early life stress negatively impacts brain development and affects structure and function of parvalbumin immunopositive (PV+) inhibitory neurons. Main regulators of PV+ interneurons activity and plasticity are perineuronal nets (PNNs), an extracellular matrix formation that enwraps PV+ interneurons mainly in the neocortex and hippocampus. To experimentally address the impact of early life stress on the PNNs and PV+ interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex and dorsal hippocampus in rats, we employed a 24 h maternal deprivation protocol. We show that maternal deprivation in the medial prefrontal cortex of adult rats caused a decrease in density of overall PNNs and PNNs that enwrap PV+ interneurons in the rostral cingulate cortex. Furthermore, a staining intensity decrease of overall PNNs and PNN+/PV+ cells was found in the prelimbic cortex. Finally, a decrease in both intensity and density of overall PNNs and PNNs surrounding PV+ cells was observed in the infralimbic cortex, together with increase in the intensity of VGAT inhibitory puncta. Surprisingly, maternal deprivation did not cause any changes in the density of PV+ interneurons in the mPFC, neither had it affected PNNs and PV+ interneurons in the hippocampus. Taken together, our findings indicate that PNNs, specifically the ones enwrapping PV+ interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex, are affected by early life stress.

The Role of Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Patients with Non- alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Obstructive Sleep Apnea.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic disease with extensive multi- organ involvement, whose extra-hepatic manifestations include diabetes mellitus type 2, cardiovascular disease, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), chronic kidney disease, and polycystic ovary syndrome. Our hypothesis was that there was a strong psychological component in NAFLD and OSA suffering patients and that psychotherapy would be helpful in the treatment of the mentioned diseases. METHODS: Of 144 initially selected patients (with NAFLD, obesity and OSA), 32 patients agreed to undergo psychotherapy, and 31 therapy-naive NAFLD and OSA patients agreed to participate as controls. RESULTS: Psychological evaluation revealed that self-esteem rose significantly after one-year psychotherapy (p=0.005). Body mass index (BMI) was significantly lower after psychotherapy, followed by the changes in laboratory results. Binomial logistic regression revealed that the reduction of BMI in high probability led to self-esteem improvement (p=0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Psychotherapy was an efficient supporting method in the treatment of patients with NAFLD, obesity and OSA. It raised self-esteem and stimulated the motivation for further treatment of obesity, as one of the important factors for NAFLD and OSA. Still, it is advisable to use psychotherapy in combination with other clinical methods of treatment.

Effects of Maternal Deprivation on the Prefrontal Cortex of Male Rats: Cellular, Neurochemical, and Behavioral Outcomes.

Stressful events experienced during early life are associated with increased vulnerability of developing psychopathology in adulthood. In the present study, we exposed 9-day-old Wistar rats to 24 h maternal deprivation (MD) with the aim to investigate the impact of early life stress (ELS) on morphological, biochemical, and functional aspects of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a brain region particularly sensitive to stress. We found that in the superficial medial orbital cortex (MO), young adult male rats had reduced density of GAD67 and CCK immunopositive cells, while the rostral part of the ventral lateral orbital cortex (roVLO) showed a decrease in the density of GAD67 immunopositive cells in both superficial and deep layers. In addition, the superficial rostral part of area 1 of the cingulate cortex (roCg1) and deep prelimbic cortex (PrL) was also affected by MD indicated by the reduction in PV immunopositive cellular density. Furthermore, MD induced upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), while it did not affect the overall expression of Iba1 in neonatal or young adult PFC as measured by Western blot, however, microglial activation in young adult MD rats was detected immunohistochemically in deep layers of MO and infralimbic cortex (IL). Interestingly, when young adult male rats were subjected to a behavioral flexibility test in a T-maze, MD rats showed a subtle impairment in T-maze reversal learning indicating a mildly affected PFC function. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that MD reduced the density of interneurons and induced microglial activation, in particular, PFC areas at young adulthood, and could alter synaptic plasticity accompanied by PFC dysfunction.

Maternal Deprivation in Rats Decreases the Expression of Interneuron Markers in the Neocortex and Hippocampus.

Early life stress has profound effects on the development of the central nervous system. We exposed 9-day-old rat pups to a 24 h maternal deprivation (MD) and sacrificed them as young adults (60-day-old), with the aim to study the effects of early stress on forebrain circuitry. We estimated numbers of various immunohistochemically defined interneuron subpopulations in several neocortical regions and in the hippocampus. MD rats showed reduced numbers of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons in the CA1 region of the hippocampus and in the prefrontal cortex, compared with controls. Numbers of reelin-expressing and calretinin-expressing interneurons were also reduced in the CA1 and CA3 hippocampal areas, but unaltered in the neocortex of MD rats. The number of calbinin-expressing interneurons in the neocortex was similar in the MD rats compared with controls. We analyzed cell death in 15-day-old rats after MD and found no difference compared to control rats. Thus, our results more likely reflect the downregulation of markers than the actual loss of interneurons. To investigate synaptic activity in the hippocampus we immunostained for glutamatergic and inhibitory vesicular transporters. The number of inhibitory synapses was decreased in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus in MD rats, with the normal number of excitatory synapses. Our results indicate complex, cell type-specific, and region-specific alterations in the inhibitory circuitry induced by maternal deprivation. Such alterations may underlie symptoms of MD at the behavioral level and possibly contribute to mechanisms by which early life stress causes neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia.

Pharmacology of repair after peripheral nerve injury.

Peripheral nerve injuries are common and present with a broad spectrum of symptoms, some of which may be the cause of life-long disabilities. The peripheral nerves show a far greater capacity for regeneration than those in the central nervous system, and the process of nerve regeneration resembles developmental processes to a certain degree. The regeneration of peripheral nerves does not always lead to a full functional recovery. That is why surgical methods are still the most reliable therapeutic options after injuries of peripheral nerves. However, there is an array of potential pharmacological options that could enhance the repair processes after surgery. This review gives a summary of the recent literature relevant to different classes of pharmacologically active substances that are used either as supplements or off-label as potential enhancers of peripheral nerve repair. Antioxidants, vitamins, calcium channel blockers, immunosuppressive drugs, growth factors, and neuroactive glycans are among the most researched in this field. More research is necessary to understand their mechanisms of action at the cellular and molecular level, and randomized clinical trials in order to establish their efficacy and safety, as well as possible synergistic or adverse interactions among them.

Long-Term Effects of Maternal Deprivation on the Volume of Dopaminergic Nuclei and Number of Dopaminergic Neurons in Substantia Nigra and Ventral Tegmental Area in Rats.

Early life adversities leave long-lasting structural and functional consequences on the brain, which may persist later in life. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is extremely important in mood and motor control. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of maternal deprivation during the ninth postnatal day on the volume of dopaminergic nuclei and the number of dopaminergic neurons in adolescence and adulthood. Maternally deprived and control Wistar rats were sacrificed on postnatal day 35 or 60, and the dopaminergic neurons were stained in coronal histological sections of ventral midbrain with the tyrosine hydroxylase antibody. The volume of dopaminergic nuclei and the number of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) were analyzed in three representative coordinates. Maternal deprivation caused weight loss on postnatal day 21 (weaning) and corticosterone blood level elevation on postnatal days 35 and 60 in stressed compared to control rats. In maternally deprived animals, the volumes of SN and VTA were increased compared to the controls. This increase was accompanied by an elevation in the number of dopaminergic neurons in both nuclei. Altogether, based on somatic and corticosterone level measurements, maternal deprivation represents a substantial adversity, and the phenotype it causes in adulthood includes increased volume of the dopaminergic nuclei and number of dopaminergic neurons.

A basic MRI anatomy of the rat brain in coronal sections for practical guidance to neuroscientists.

Identification of the brain structures in the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the rat is very important for the experimental work of many neuroscientists. Our intention was to recognize most of the structures without overlapping the MRI sections with the histological templates. Three live rats were used for this study who were examined in a micro-MRI apparatus by performing T2-weighted sequences in serial brain sections. Most of the white matter structures were easily identified, e.g. the anterior commissure, corpus callosum with forceps minor and major, cingulum, external and internal capsules, fornix, stria medullaris and terminalis, cranial nerves, mammillothalamic tract, fasciculus retroflexus, medial and lateral lemniscus, posterior commissure, commissures of the superior and inferior colliculi, medial longitudinal fasciculus, and the cerebral peduncle. Large and small gray matter structures were recognized as well, for example, the anterior olfactory structures, nucleus accumbens, caudate putamen, claustrum, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, pituitary gland, globus pallidus, amygdala, some midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei, certain hypothalamic nuclei, hippocampal formation, pineal body, periaqueductal gray matter, lateral and medial geniculate bodies, superior and inferior colliculi, and cranial nerves nuclei. All in all, of the total 160 recognized brain structures, 77 were identified without using the corresponding histological atlases. We believe that our labeled MRI pictures could be an important way for quick orientation for evaluating the effects of the experimental work regarding the rat brain.

Haloperidol affects bones while clozapine alters metabolic parameters - sex specific effects in rats perinatally treated with phencyclidine.

BACKGROUND: The presentation of schizophrenia (SCH) symptoms differs between the sexes. Long-term treatment with antipsychotics is frequently associated with decreased bone mineral density, increased fracture risk and metabolic side effects. Perinatal phencyclidine (PCP) administration to rodents represents an animal model of SCH. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of chronic haloperidol and clozapine treatment on bone mass, body composition, corticosterone, IL-6 and TNF-α concentrations and metabolic parameters in male and female rats perinatally treated with PCP. METHODS: Six groups of male and six groups of female rats (n = 6-12 per group) were subcutaneously treated on 2nd, 6th, 9th and 12th postnatal day (PN), with either PCP (10 mg/kg) or saline. At PN35, one NaCl and PCP group (NaCl-H and PCP-H) started receiving haloperidol (1 mg/kg/day) and one NaCl and PCP group (NaCl-C and PCP-C) started receiving clozapine (20 mg/kg/day) dissolved in drinking water. The remaining NaCl and PCP groups received water. Dual X-ray absorptiometry measurements were performed on PN60 and PN98. Animals were sacrificed on PN100. Femur was analysed by light microscopy. Concentrations of corticosterone, TNF-α and IL-6 were measured in serum samples using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) commercially available kits. Glucose, cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations were measured in serum spectrophotometrically. RESULTS: Our results showed that perinatal PCP administration causes a significant decrease in bone mass and deterioration in bone quality in male and female rats. Haloperidol had deleterious, while clozapine had protective effect on bones. The effects of haloperidol on bones were more pronounced in male rats. It seems that the observed changes are not the consequence of the alterations of corticosterone, IL-6 and TNF-α concentration since no change of these factors was observed. Clozapine induced increase of body weight and retroperitoneal fat in male rats regardless of perinatal treatment. Furthermore, clozapine treatment caused sex specific increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSION: Taken together our findings confirm that antipsychotics have complex influence on bone and metabolism. Evaluation of potential markers for individual risk of antipsychotics induced adverse effects could be valuable for improvement of therapy of this life-long lasting disease.

Long-Term Effects of Maternal Deprivation on Redox Regulation in Rat Brain: Involvement of NADPH Oxidase.

Maternal deprivation (MD) causes perinatal stress, with subsequent behavioral changes which resemble the symptoms of schizophrenia. The NADPH oxidase is one of the major generators of reactive oxygen species, known to play a role in stress response in different tissues. The aim of this study was to elucidate the long-term effects of MD on the expression of NADPH oxidase subunits (gp91phox, p22phox, p67phox, p47phox, and p40phox). Activities of cytochrome C oxidase and respiratory chain Complex I, as well as the oxidative stress parameters using appropriate spectrophotometric techniques were analyzed. Nine-day-old Wistar rats were exposed to a 24 h maternal deprivation and sacrificed at young adult age. The structures affected by perinatal stress, cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and caudate nuclei were investigated. The most prominent findings were increased expressions of gp91phox in the cortex and hippocampus, increased expression of p22phox and p40phox, and decreased expression of gp91phox, p22phox, and p47phox in the caudate nuclei. Complex I activity was increased in all structures except cortex. Content of reduced glutathione was decreased in all sections while region-specific changes of other oxidative stress parameters were found. Our results indicate the presence of long-term redox alterations in MD rats.

Long-term Effects of Maternal Deprivation on the Volume, Number and Size of Neurons in the Amygdala and Nucleus Accumbens of Rats.

BACKGROUND: Maternal deprivation (MD) in rodents is an important neurodevelopmental model for studying a variety of behavioral changes which closely resemble the symptoms of schizophrenia in humans. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: To determine whether early-life stress leads to changes in the limbic system structures: the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens, 9-day-old Wistar rats were exposed to 24 hour MD. On P60 the rats were sacrificed for morphometric analysis and their brains were compared to the control group. RESULTS: Results show that MD affected important limbic system structures: the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens, whose volume was decreased (17% of the control value for the amygdala and 9% of the control value for the nucleus accumbens ), as well as the number of neurons (41% of the control value for the amygdala and 43% of the control value for the nucleus accumbens ) and the size of their cells soma (12% of the control value for the amygdala and 33% of the control value for the nucleus accumbens ). CONCLUSION: This study indicates that early stress in life leads to changes in the morphology of the limbic areas of the brain, most probably due to the loss of neurons during postnatal development, and it further contributes to our understanding of the effects of maternal deprivation on brain development.

Clinical significance of blood supply to the internal capsule and basal ganglia.

Although the general vascular supply of the basal ganglia and internal capsule is well known, precise data are lacking regarding the variations of the vascular territories in the two regions. Twelve hemispheres were studied following an injection of coloured ink into the main cerebral arteries, namely the anterior cerebral (ACA), middle cerebral (MCA), anterior choroidal (AChA) and posterior cerebral artery (PCA). Serial sections of the injected hemispheres were taken in the axial or coronal plane. In 75% of the hemispheres, ACA perforators were seen to supply the inferomedial part of the head of the caudate nucleus and the anterior limb of the internal capsule, as well as the anterior and inferior portions of the putamen and globus pallidus. The MCA vessels perfused the superolateral part of the head and body of the caudate nucleus, the superior part of the entire internal capsule, most of the putamen and part of the globus pallidus. The AChA perforators perfused the medial segment of the globus pallidus, the inferior part of the posterior limb, the retrolenticular and sublenticular portions of the internal capsule, and occasionally its genu. The same segment of the globus pallidus and the inferior part of the genu of the internal capsule were most likely supplied by the perforators of the internal carotid artery. A predominance of ACA territory was noticed in one specimen (8.33%) and a predominance of MCA territory in two specimens (16.67%). The obtained anatomical data may help radiologic determination of perforators involved in ischemic events, as well as a better understanding of the neurological deficits in the same events.

Brain changes in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder and associated alcoholism: MRI based study.

BACKGROUND: Studies imposing rigorous control over lifetime alcohol intake usually have not found smaller hippocampal volumes in persons with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Since the majority of negative studies have used adolescent samples, it has been suggested that chronicity is a necessary condition for such findings. We have hypothesized that the volumes of hippocampus, amygdale, prefrontal cortex and the intracranial volume are reduced in the patients with PTSD and excessive alcohol intake. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Study has been carried out on 54 therapy naive PTSD suffering subjects and healthy controls, divided in two groups: 29 with PTSD and consequent alcoholism, 25 with PTSD but without problems of excessive alcohol intake, and 25 healthy volunteers. All of the patients underwent same magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) protocol and volumetric evaluation of the region of interest. RESULTS: Only hippocampal volume appeared to be significantly reduced in patients with PTSD and alcoholism. Other differences in the volumes obtained remained to be insignificant. CONCLUSION: Alcohol intake definitely worsens the deterioration of the hippocampal formation in PTSD suffering patients. Nevertheless, other structures of interest for this study did not manifest any kind of statistical differences in volumetric analysis.

Common features of the cerebral perforating arteries and their clinical significance.

BACKGROUND: The perforating vessels supply very important regions of the brain stem and diencephalon, as well as the basal ganglia and internal capsule. Some of their micro-anatomical characteristics are still not well known. The aim of this study was to examine and evaluate the features of all the perforating vessels. METHODS: The arteries of 24-32 cerebral hemispheres, diencephalons and halves of the brain stem were injected with India ink mixture or methylmethacrylate, and microdissection was performed or the vascular casts were produced and examined under the sterescopic microscope. RESULTS: It was noticed that the perforators ranged from 0 to 14 in number, with the smallest mean value (1.1) for the diencephalic perforators and the largest one (8.1) for the lenticulostriate arteries. The smallest mean diameter (175 µm) was found in the group of the perforators of the anterior communicating artery, whereas the largest one is related to the Heubner's artery (668 µm), the diencephalic thalamoperforating vessels (562 µm), the premamillary vessel (489 µm) and the lenticulostriate arteries (469 µm). The perforators most frequently originated from the pial branches of the basilar artery (91.7 %) and of the posterior cerebral artery (59.4 %). The common stems were most often formed by the perforators of the basilar (79.2 %), posterior cerebral (75.0 %) and middle cerebral arteries (40.6 %). Some perforators arose close to or from the terminal divisions, the branching sites or the junctions of the parent arteries, where the saccular aneurysms most often develop. The anastomoses among the perforators were present in a range from 6.3 % to 53.2 %. CONCLUSIONS: The micro-anatomical data obtained may be useful for neurosurgeons when operating at the base of the brain, as well as for a neurological and radiological evaluation of the perforators in the occlusive cerebrovascular disease, or in the cases of an aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation (AVM) or tumour presence.

The influence of sex hormones on anterior cruciate ligament ruptures in males.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to determine the difference in the concentrations of testosterone, 17-ß estradiol and progesterone between male patients with and without ACL rupture, as well as the possible effect of these hormones on generalized joint laxity. METHODS: Male subjects with non-contact knee joint injury were included in this study. Two groups were formed: the examined group, consisting of subjects with ACL rupture and the control group consisting of patients without ACL rupture. After this, the patients from these two groups were paired off on the basis of three factors, level of professional involvement in sports (including the type of sports activity), left or right side of the body and the age of the subjects. In the end, there were 29 pairs (58 subjects). The concentration of sex hormones was determined from saliva specimens with the aid of the Salimetrics enzyme immunoassay. The testing of generalized joint laxity was performed with the aid of the "laxity score" according to Beighton et al. RESULTS: Subjects with ACL rupture have highly statistically significantly greater concentrations of testosterone (p < 0.01), statistically significantly greater concentrations of 17-ß estradiol (p < 0.05), and a highly statistically significantly greater generalized joint laxity score than subjects with an intact ACL (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Increased concentrations of testosterone or 17-ß estradiol may be a risk factor leading to ACL rupture. Also, generalized joint laxity may be a factor leading to ACL rupture, but none of the monitored hormones can be set down as the cause of its existence. Young male athletes with higher concentrations of testosterone and greater hyperelasticity should plan preventive programs of physiotherapy for ACL preservation since they present a vulnerable group susceptible to ACL rupture. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic study, Level II.

The influence of sex hormones on anterior cruciate ligament rupture: female study.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the difference in the concentrations of testosterone, 17-ß estradiol and progesterone between female patients with and without ACL rupture and the possible effect of these hormones on generalised joint laxity. METHODS: Female subjects with non-contact knee joint injury were included in this study. They were divided into two groups: the examined group, consisting of female subjects with ACL rupture, and the control group, consisting of female patients without ACL rupture. In the next step, the patients from these two groups were paired off on the basis of three factors: the level of professional sports involvement (including the type of sports activity), the side of the body where the injury had occurred (left or right) and the age of the subjects. In the end, there were 12 pairs (24 subjects). The concentrations of sex hormones were established from saliva specimens with the aid of the Salimetrics enzyme immunoassay. Generalised joint laxity was tested with the aid of the "laxity score" according to Beighton, Solomon and Soskolne. RESULTS: Female subjects with ACL rupture had significantly lower concentrations of testosterone (p < 0.01), significantly lower concentrations of 17-ß estradiol (p < 0.05) and significantly lower concentrations of progesterone (p < 0.01) than female subjects with intact ACL. CONCLUSIONS: Decreased concentrations of testosterone, 17-ß estradiol or progesterone may be a risk factor leading to ACL rupture. The concentrations of these hormones do not affect generalised joint laxity. Additional research on a larger group of patients is necessary to further determine the effects of these hormones on generalised joint laxity and ACL ruptures. Young female athletes with lower concentrations of sex hormones are more prone to anterior cruciate ligament rupture which is why they need to reduce their sports activities during the pre-ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, when these concentrations are additionally reduced.

Immunolocalization of different neuropeptides in human interthalamic adhaesion indicates its functionality.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The interthalamic adhaesion (IA), gray matter connecting both thalami, is absent in about a quarter of human brains. Controversies are present about the nature and functional significance of the human IA. METHODS: In six adult human brains we investigated the expression of different neuropeptides: somatosatin (SOM), neuropeptide Y (NPY), ghrelin, neurotensin (NT), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), substance P (SP) and L-enkephalin (L-Enk) in neurons and/or neuropil of the IA, using immunohistochemistry (streptavidin-biotin technique). RESULTS: In neurons, as well as in fibers, we found immunoreactivity for ghrelin, SOM, L-Enk and NT. However, reactivity for NPY, SP and ACTH was present only in fibers within the IA. Fusiform neurons were immunoreactive for SOM, Ghrelin, L-Enk, and NT, neurons with oval perikaryon for SOM, and L-Enk, triangular neurons showed immunoreactivity mainly for NT and multipolar neurons for NT and L-Enk. CONCLUSION: These findings can contribute to the understanding of the function of interthalamic adhaesion, and to resolving the question whether it is a vestigial structure. No mather if the interthalamic adhaesion is vestigial structure or not, its presence or absence could be a marker for other, genetic or functional differences between human brains. Our findings indicate the presence of certain neuronal organization in the human interthalamic adhaesion which could have functional significance, and do not support its vestigial nature.

Long-term effects of maternal deprivation on the neuronal soma area in the rat neocortex.

Early separation of rat pups from their mothers (separatio a matrem) is considered and accepted as an animal model of perinatal stress. Adult rats, separated early postnatally from their mothers, are developing long-lasting changes in the brain and neuroendocrine system, corresponding to the findings observed in schizophrenia and affective disorders. With the aim to investigate the morphological changes in this animal model we exposed 9-day-old (P9) Wistar rats to a 24 h maternal deprivation (MD). At young adult age rats were sacrificed for morphometric analysis and their brains were compared with the control group bred under the same conditions, but without MD. Rats exposed to MD had a 28% smaller cell soma area in the prefrontal cortex (PFCX), 30% in retrosplenial cortex (RSCX), and 15% in motor cortex (MCX) compared to the controls. No difference was observed in the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the neocortex of MD rats compared to the control group. The results of this study demonstrate that stress in early life has a long-term effect on neuronal soma size in cingulate and retrosplenial cortex and is potentially interesting as these structures play an important role in cognition.

Volumetric analysis of amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex in therapy-naive PTSD participants.

OBJECTIVE: In our study we have hypothesized that volume changes of amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex are more pronounced in male posttraumatic stress disorder participants. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We have conducted a study of 79 male participants who underwent MRI brain scanning. PTSD diagnosis was confirmed in 49 participants. After MRI was taken all scans were software based volume computed and statistically processed. RESULTS: We found that left amygdala is the most significant parameter for distinction between PTSD participants and participants without PTSD. There were no significant differences in volumes of hippocampi and prefrontal cortices. Roc curve method outlined left amygdala AUC = 0.898 (95% CI = 0.830-0.967) and right amygdala AUC = 0.882 (95% CI = 0.810-0.954) in the group of PTSD participants which makes both variables highly statistically significant. CONCLUSION: The present investigation revealed significant volume decrease of left amygdala in PTSD patients. Concerning important functions of the amygdala and her neuroanatomical connections with other brain structures, we need to increase number of participants to clarify the correlation between impared amygdala and possible other different brain structures in participants with PTSD.