Flavonoids stimulate cholecystokinin peptide secretion from the enteroendocrine STC-1 cells.

Animal experiments showed that flavonoids might have the potential for an anti-obesity effect by reducing weight and food intake. However, the exact mechanisms that could be involved in these proposed effects are still under investigation. The complex process of food intake is partially regulated by gastrointestinal hormones. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is the best known gastrointestinal hormone to induce satiety signal that plays a key role in food intake regulation. It is released from the endocrine cells (I cell) in response to the ingestion of nutrients into the small intestine. In this study, we investigated the possible effects of flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, rutin and baicalein) on stimulation of CCK release in vitro using enteroendocrine STC-1 cells. In comparison with the control, quercetin, kaempferol and apigenin resulted in a significant increase in CCK secretion with quercetin showing the highest activity. On the other hand, no significant effect was seen by rutin and baicalein. To our knowledge, this is the first report to study the stimulation of CCK peptide hormone secretion from STC-1 cells by quercetin and kaempferol, rutin, apigenin and baicalein. Based on the cell-based results in this work, it can be suggested that the reported activity of flavonoids against food intake and weight could be mediated by stimulation of CCK signal which in turn is responsible for food intake reduction, but future animal and human studies are needed to confirm this conclusion at organism level.

Analysis of interaction of phenolic compounds with the cholecystokinin signaling pathway to explain effects on reducing food intake.

Previous animal experiments demonstrated that phenolic compounds can reduce weight and food intake, but the exact mechanism(s) behind these effects remain unknown. For regulation of food intake, the cholecystokinin (CCK) hormone signaling pathway plays an important role as it induces satiety by binding on its specific receptor (CCK1R), hereby reducing food intake. In this study, we investigated the possible interactions of eight phenolic compounds of different classes (tannic acid, gallic acid, benzoic acid, hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, quercetin, kaempferol and resveratrol) with the CCK1R signaling pathway. As major results, the tested phenolic compounds could not activate the CCK1R in a specific cell-based bioassay. In contrast, we observed an anti-CCK1R activity. This antagonistic action might be explained by blocking of the functioning of the CCK1R receptor, although the exact mechanism of interaction remains unknown. For tannic acid, we also measured a sequestration activity of the CCK hormone in vitro. In conclusion, the reported activity of phenolic compounds against food intake and weight is not based on an activation of the CCK1R. Taking into account the complex regulation of food intake, further work is necessary to unravel other essential mechanisms involved to explain the reported effects of phenolic compounds against food intake.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory effects by plant phenolic compounds: a study of structure activity relationships.

In this study, 22 phenolic compounds were investigated to inhibit the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). Tannic acid showed the highest activity (IC50 = 230 µM). The IC50 values obtained for phenolic acids and flavonoids ranged between 0.41 and 9.3 mM. QSAR analysis confirmed that the numbers of hydroxyl groups on the benzene ring play an important role for activity of phenolic compounds and that substitution of hydroxyl groups by methoxy groups decreased activity. Docking studies indicated that phenolic acids and flavonoids inhibit ACE via interaction with the zinc ion and this interaction is stabilized by other interactions with amino acids in the active site. Other compounds, such as resveratrol and pyrogallol, may inhibit ACE via interactions with amino acids at the active site, thereby blocking the catalytic activity of ACE. These structure-function relationships are useful for designing new ACE inhibitors and potential blood-pressure-lowering compounds based on phenolic compounds.

Screening of soy and milk protein hydrolysates for their ability to activate the CCK1 receptor.

The cholecystokinin receptor-type 1 (CCK1R) is a G-protein coupled receptor localized in the animal gastrointestinal tract. Receptor activation by the natural peptide ligand CCK leads to a feeling of satiety. In this study, hydrolysates from soy and milk proteins were evaluated for their potential to activate the CCK1R, assuming that bioactive peptides with a satiogenic effect can be used as an effective therapeutic strategy for obesity. Different protein hydrolysates were screened with a cell-based bioassay, which relies on the generation of a fluorescent signal upon receptor activation. Fluorescence was monitored using a fluorescence plate reader and confocal microscopy. Results from the fluorescence plate reader were biased by background autofluorescence of the protein hydrolysate matrices, which makes the fluorescence plate reader inappropriate for the evaluation of complex formulations. Measurements with the confocal microscope resulted in reliable and specific results. The latter approach showed that the gastrointestinal digested 7S fraction of soy protein demonstrates CCK1R activity.