The compelling role of allopurinol in hyperuricemia-induced epilepsy: Unrecognized like tears in rain.

Epilepsy is a common neurological disease characterized by the recurrent, paroxysmal, and unprovoked seizures. It has been shown that hyperuricemia enhances and associated with the development and progression of epilepsy through induction of inflammation and oxidative stress. In addition, uric acid is released within the brain and contributes in the development of neuronal hyperexcitability and epileptic seizure. Brain uric acid acts as damage associated molecular pattern (DAMP) activates the immune response and induce the development of neuroinflammation. Therefore, inhibition of xanthine oxidase by allopurinol may reduce hyperuricemia-induced epileptic seizure and associated oxidative stress and inflammation. However, the underlying mechanism of allopurinol in the epilepsy was not fully elucidated. Therefore, this review aims to revise from published articles the link between hyperuricemia and epilepsy, and how allopurinol inhibits the development of epileptic seizure.

BDNF/TrkB activators in Parkinson's disease: A new therapeutic strategy.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder of the brain and is manifested by motor and non-motor symptoms because of degenerative changes in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. PD neuropathology is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage and apoptosis. Thus, the modulation of mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage and apoptosis by growth factors could be a novel boulevard in the management of PD. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its receptor tropomyosin receptor kinase type B (TrkB) are chiefly involved in PD neuropathology. BDNF promotes the survival of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and enhances the functional activity of striatal neurons. Deficiency of the TrkB receptor triggers degeneration of dopaminergic neurons and accumulation of α-Syn in the substantia nigra. As well, BDNF/TrkB signalling is reduced in the early phase of PD neuropathology. Targeting of BDNF/TrkB signalling by specific activators may attenuate PD neuropathology. Thus, this review aimed to discuss the potential role of BDNF/TrkB activators against PD. In conclusion, BDNF/TrkB signalling is decreased in PD and linked with disease severity and long-term complications. Activation of BDNF/TrkB by specific activators may attenuate PD neuropathology.

The vagus nerve cross-sectional area on ultrasound in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Diabetic neuropathy, including autonomic neuropathy is a serious complication related to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). The vagus nerve (VN) is the longest nerve in the autonomic nervous system, and since diabetic neuropathy manifests first in longer nerves, the VN is commonly affected in early diabetic autonomic neuropathy. The use of high-resolution ultrasound for peripheral and cranial nerve imaging has significantly increased over the past 2 decades. The aim of the study is to compare the cross-sectional area of the VN in patients with T2D to that of a control cohort without T2D. A total of 52 VN cross-sectional areas were recorded from patients with T2D. A total of 56 VN cross-sectional areas were also recorded from asymptomatic subjects without T2D. In each subject, high-resolution ultrasound imaging of the bilateral VNs was performed in the short-axis between the common carotid artery and the internal jugular vein. The VN cross-sectional areas were recorded and compared. In the patients with T2D, HbA1c and fasting blood glucose levels were obtained as well as the duration of T2D in years and correlated with the cross-sectional areas. The bilateral VN cross-sectional areas were similar in both cohorts. Additionally, no correlation was seen between the VN cross-sectional areas, demographics, or clinical data of T2D. Our study demonstrated normal VN cross-sectional areas in patients with T2D without any significant relation with the patients' demographic or clinical data.

Ultrasound imaging of the phrenic nerve at the scalene muscle level.

The aim of this study is to utilize ultrasound to evaluate the normal cross-sectional area (CSA) of the phrenic nerve (PN), at the level of the anterior scalene muscle. The study included 62 PNs in 31 healthy subjects (13 men, 18 women); mean age, 36.6 years; mean height, 161.1 cm; mean weight, 69.6 kg; and mean body mass index 25.8 kg/m2. High-resolution ultrasound images of the bilateral PNs were obtained by a radiologist with 15 years of experience in neuromusculoskeletal ultrasound. Three separate CSA measurements for the bilateral PNs bilaterally were obtained. Images were also reviewed by an experienced neurologist to evaluate for inter-rater variability. The mean CSA of the right PN was 0.54 mm2 ± 0.16. The mean CSA of the left PN was 0.53 mm2 ± 0.18. We believe that the reference values for the normal CSA of the PNs obtained in our study could help in the sonographic evaluation of PN enlargement, as it relates to the diagnosis of various diseases affecting the PN. Furthermore, knowledge of its location and size, at the level of the scalene muscle, could help prevent PN-related complications during interventional procedures in that area. Additionally, for each participant, demographic information of age and gender as well as body mass index, weight, and height were documented.

Ultrasound of the normal vagus nerve cross-sectional area in the carotid sheath.

The aim of this article is to utilize ultrasound to evaluate the normal cross-sectional area (CSA)of the vagus nerve (VN) in the carotid sheath. This study included 86 VNs in 43 healthy subjects (15 men, 28 women); mean age 42.1 years and mean body mass index 26.2 kg/m2. For each subject, the bilateral VNs were identified by US at the anterolateral neck within the common carotid sheaths. One radiologist obtained 3 separate CSA measurements for each of the bilateral VNs with complete transducer removal between each measurement. Additionally, for each participant, demographic information of age and gender as well as body mass index, weight, and height were documented. The mean CSA of the right VN in the carotid sheath was 2.1 and 1.9 mm2 for the left VN. The right VN CSA was significantly larger than the left VN (P < .012). No statistically significant correlation was noted in relation to height, weight, and age. We believe that the reference values for the normal CSA of the VN obtained in our study, could help in the sonographic evaluation of VN enlargement, as it relates to the diagnosis of various diseases affecting the VN.

Ultrasound assessment of the brachial plexus nerve root cross-sectional areas in asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is one of the most common metabolic diseases and is often associated with cervical radiculoplexus neuropathies. Magnetic resonance imaging is the modality of choice for evaluating the brachial plexus, however, the use of ultrasound for its evaluation has increased and has been shown to be an additional reliable method. We aimed to compare the cross-sectional areas of the C5, C6, and C7 nerve roots of the brachial plexus, at the interscalene groove, in asymptomatic patients with T2D to that of an asymptomatic control cohort without T2D. A total of 25 asymptomatic patients with T2D were recruited from outpatient clinics. A total of 18 asymptomatic subjects without T2D were also recruited from hospital staff volunteers to form the control cohort. High-resolution ultrasound imaging of the bilateral C5, C6, and C7 nerve roots of the brachial plexus was performed in the short axis, at the level of the interscalene grooves. The nerve root cross-sectional areas were recorded and compared. In the patients with T2D, HbA1c and fasting blood glucose (FBG) levels were obtained as well as the duration of T2D in years and correlated with cross-sectional areas. The cross-sectional areas of C6 and C7 were significantly smaller in the T2D cohort. Additionally, HbA1c, and FBG levels as well as the duration of T2D were negatively correlated with the C5, C6, and C7 cross-sectional areas. Our study demonstrated smaller brachial plexus nerve root cross-sectional areas in asymptomatic patients with T2D which negatively correlated with HbA1c, and FBG levels as well as the duration of T2D.