Family-based activity settings of children in a low-income African context.

BACKGROUND: There has been an overwhelming call to improve the understanding of how children develop within an African context as Euro-American definitions of competence have been uncritically adopted as the norm for children in Africa. The activities that children engage in within the family setting are seen as important to understand how children develop within context. The use of activity settings is closely aligned with a strengths-based perspective of family-centred practice and contributes to improved sustainability of intervention. OBJECTIVES: This study that was conducted in Soweto, South Africa, aims to describe activity settings that typically developing young children in low-income African contexts participate in. METHOD: A descriptive design using structured interviews was utilised to obtain information about activity settings that children aged 3-5 years and 11 months engaged in. Structured interviews with 90 caregivers were conducted. RESULTS: Findings show that children participate in a variety of activities with varied participation levels. The types of activities are dependent on the context and perceptions of caregivers. CONCLUSION: These findings draw attention to understanding activities that children engage in within the family context.

Using peer-mediated instruction to support communication involving a student with autism during mathematics activities: A case study.

This study employed an A-B singled subject design to explore the extent to which a peer-mediated intervention supported a first-grade student with autism's usage both in purpose and frequency of a speech-generating device (SGD) during mathematics activities. The intervention involved teaching a peer without a disability to encourage the student with autism to use the SGD during partnered mathematics activities. Our analysis involved visual and descriptive examination of trends and patterns over time, and comparison of means between and within phases. We found during the course of this study that (1) the student with autism's level of overall communication, which included the relevancy of these communicative behaviors, increased; (2) the student with autism's level of spontaneous communication acts increased; and (3) the peer became more independent with supporting the student with autism's communication. Implications for future research and practice are provided.

Teaching graphic symbol combinations to children with limited speech during shared story reading.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of an intervention strategy on the production of graphic symbol combinations in children with limited speech. Four children between the ages of 6;5 and 10;8 (years;months) with limited speech participated in the study. A single-subject, multiple probe design across three different types of semantic relations was used. Generalization to untrained exemplars was also monitored. Results were mixed across the four participants: two participants learned to combine symbols across different types of relations, maintained these skills post intervention, and generalized their skills to untrained combinations; and two participants showed less consistent evidence of learning. The effects, as measured during structured probes, were strong for one participant, moderate for another, and inconclusive for the two others. Responses during shared story reading suggested that the measurement probes might have underestimated participants' ability to combine symbols.

Children's identification of graphic symbols representing four basic emotions: comparison of Afrikaans-speaking and Sepedi-speaking children.

PURPOSE: Speech language pathologists recommend graphic symbols for AAC users to facilitate communication, including labelling and expressing emotions. The purpose of the current study was to describe and compare how 5- to 6-year-old Afrikaans- and Sepedi-speaking children identify and choose graphic symbols to depict four basic emotions, specifically happy, sad, afraid, and angry. METHOD: Ninety participants were asked to select the graphic symbol from a 16-matrix communication overlay that would represent the emotion in response to 24 vignettes. RESULTS: The results of the t-tests indicated that the differences between the two groups' selection of target symbols to represent the four emotions are statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study indicate that children from different language groups may not perceive graphic symbols in the same way. The Afrikaans-speaking participants more often choose target symbols to represent target basic emotions than did the Sepedi-speaking participants. The most preferred symbols per emotion were identified and these different symbols were analysed in terms of facial features that distinguish them. LEARNING OUTCOMES: Readers of this article will (1) recognise the importance of expressing basic emotions for children, particularly those that use AAC, (2) identify the possible limitations of line drawings for expressing and labelling basic emotions in typically developing children and (3) recognise the importance of cultural influences on recognition of basic emotions.

Translucency ratings of Blissymbols over repeated exposures by children with autism.

The use of graphic symbols forms an integral part of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) strategies, particularly for pre-literate children. Although some studies have indicated that typically developing children and those with autism are able to learn symbol meanings with multiple exposures to graphic symbols, little is known about how children with autism rate the degree to which the symbol represents its referent (translucency) with repeated exposures. The purpose of this study was to describe the translucency ratings of children with autism over three consecutive exposures. Twenty-two children with autism participated in a Blissymbol translucency task that included 40 symbols. The Blissymbol task was modified from Bornman, Alant, and du Preez (2009) , who explored the translucency of Blissymbols with typically developing children. Findings of this study indicated statistically significant differences in total translucency ratings of the Blissymbols by the children with autism between Day 1 and Day 3 (medium effect size) with Day 3 yielding more positive ratings than Day 1. No single Blissymbol showed statistically significant differences over the days. Findings are interpreted and further implications for research are discussed.

Application of the self-generation effect to the learning of Blissymbols by persons presenting with a severe aphasia.

This study investigated the application of the self-generation effect to enhance the recognition and retention of Blissymbols in persons with severe aphasia. A 2×2×3 factorial design of two treatment types (self-generation and non-generation) was used to teach two sets of Blissymbols. These were administered during 3 training days, between which were withdrawal periods of 1 day and 7 days. Recognition and retention probes were administered at intervals during the training. ANOVA analysis showed that the self-generation treatment produced no immediate recognition advantage; however, better retention of symbol recognition may have occurred over time. Hence, the potential application of the self-generation effect in enhancing the retention of Blissymbols in persons with severe aphasia may warrant further investigation.

The effect of sequential exposure of color conditions on time and accuracy of graphic symbol location.

An important aspect in AAC concerns the user's ability to locate an aided visual symbol on a communication display in order to facilitate meaningful interaction with partners. Recent studies have suggested that the use of different colored symbols may be influential in the visual search process, and that this, in turn will influence the speed and accuracy of symbol location. This study examined the role of color on rate and accuracy of identifying symbols on an 8-location overlay through the use of 3 color conditions (same, mixed and unique). Sixty typically developing preschool children were exposed to two different sequential exposures (Set 1 and Set 2). Participants searched for a target stimulus (either meaningful symbols or arbitrary forms) in a stimuli array. Findings indicated that the sequential exposures (orderings) impacted both time and accuracy for both types of symbols within specific instances.

Translucency and learnability of Blissymbols in Setswana-speaking children: an exploration.

Although the importance of iconicity in the learning of symbols has been widely acknowledged, there have been few systematic investigations into the influence of culture on the ratings of symbol iconicity. The purposes of this study were two-fold: to determine (a) the translucency ratings of specific Blissymbols as rated by 6- to 7-year-old Setswana-speaking children (one of South Africa's 11 official languages); and (b) whether the ratings changed after second and third exposures in order to determine the learnability of these symbols. This study is partially based on the study by Quist et al. (1998), which utilized Dutch and American participants. Thirty-four Setswana children were exposed to 93 selected Blissymbols. A 3-point semantic differential scale consisting of three faces accompanied each Blissymbol, without the written gloss. This procedure was repeated over a period of 3 days. The results indicated that the majority of Blissymbols were rated as having high translucency ratings. The research further demonstrated significant differences in translucency between first and second exposures, suggesting that learning of the symbols had occurred. The comparison between the results of the current study and the results reported in the Quist et al. study reveal that the translucency ratings of the majority of the selected Blissymbols ranged from moderate to high for all three studies, but that the distribution of symbols across the ratings appears to be different.

The effect of aided language stimulation on vocabulary acquisition in children with little or no functional speech.

PURPOSE: To describe the nature and frequency of the aided language stimulation program and determine the effects of a 3-week-long aided language stimulation program on the vocabulary acquisition skills of children with little or no functional speech (LNFS). METHOD: Four children participated in this single-subject, multiple-probe study across activities. The aided language stimulation program comprised 3 activities: arts and crafts, food preparation, and story time activity. Each activity was repeated over the duration of 5 subsequent sessions. Eight target vocabulary items were taught within each activity. The acquisition of all 24 target items was probed throughout the duration of the 3-week intervention period. RESULTS: The frequency and nature of the aided language stimulation provided met the criterion of being used 70% of the time and providing aided language stimulation with an 80:20 ratio of statements to questions. The results indicated that all 4 participants acquired the target vocabulary items. There were, however, variations in the rate of acquisition. CONCLUSIONS: This study explores the impact of aided language stimulation on vocabulary acquisition in children. The most important clinical implication of this study is that a 3-week intervention program in aided language stimulation was sufficient to facilitate the comprehension of at least 24 vocabulary items in 4 children with LNFS.

Which graphic symbols do 4-year-old children choose to represent each of the four basic emotions?

The purpose of this study was to investigate which graphic symbols are perceived by typically developing 4-year-old children as the best representation of four basic emotions. Participants were asked to respond to questions by using graphic symbols taken from PCS, PICSYM, and Makaton for four basic emotions: happy, sad, afraid, angry. The purpose was to determine which graphic symbol the children selected as a representation of an emotion. Frequencies of choices per symbol were obtained and the different symbols were analysed in terms of facial features that distinguish them from each other. The most preferred symbol per emotion was also identified. Results showed that children recognized the emotion happy with more ease than the emotions sad, afraid, and angry.

The impact of visual sequencing of graphic symbols on the sentence construction output of children who have acquired language.

Although the sequence of graphic or pictorial symbols displayed on a communication board can have an impact on the language output of children, very little research has been conducted to describe this. Research in this area is particularly relevant for prioritising the importance of specific visual and graphic features in providing more effective and user-friendly access to communication boards. This study is concerned with understanding the impact ofspecific sequences of graphic symbol input on the graphic and spoken output of children who have acquired language. Forty participants were divided into two comparable groups. Each group was exposed to graphic symbol input with a certain word order sequence. The structure of input was either in typical English word order sequence Subject- Verb-Object (SVO) or in the word order sequence of Subject-Object-Verb (SOV). Both input groups had to answer six questions by using graphic output as well as speech. The findings indicated that there are significant differences in the PCS graphic output patterns of children who are exposed to graphic input in the SOV and SVO sequences. Furthermore, the output produced in the graphic mode differed considerably to the output produced in the spoken mode. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed

The challenge of cross-cultural assessment--The Test of Ability To Explain for Zulu-speaking Children.

UNLABELLED: A culturally appropriate test, The Test of Ability To Explain for Zulu-speaking Children (TATE-ZC), was developed to measure verbal problem solving skills of rural, Zulu-speaking, primary school children. Principles of 'non-biased' assessment, as well as emic (culture specific) and etic (universal) aspects of intelligence formed the theoretical backdrop. In addition, specific principles relating to test translation; test content; culturally appropriate stimulus material; scoring procedures and test administration were applied. Five categories of abstract thinking skills formed the basis of the TATE-ZC. These were: (a) Explaining Inferences, (b) Determining Cause, (c) Negative Why Questions, (d) Determining Solutions and (e) Avoiding Problem. The process of test development underwent three pilot studies. Results indicate that the TATE-ZC is a reliable and valid test for the target population. A critical analysis of the efficacy of creating a test of verbal reasoning for children from the developing world concludes the article. LEARNING OUTCOMES: As a result of this activity (1) the participant will have a clearer understanding of the principles that need to be followed when developing culturally appropriate test material; (2) the participant will understand the process of developing culturally appropriate test material for non-mainstream cultures; (3) the participant will be able to apply the process and principles to other cross-cultural testing situations.

Issues in AAC research: how much do we really understand?

PURPOSE: The purpose of this introductory paper is to provide some overview of and background to the issues that were raised at the Augmentative and Alternative Research Seminar in conjunction with the First Regional AAC conference on 23 February 2004. A group of 45 AAC researchers and professionals convened for one day to discuss some basic research issues in AAC. This paper highlights themes and perspectives that emerged from the research seminar discussions. METHOD: Literature reviews and discussion are used to provide a historical perspective on some of the issues raised. Two focus areas were identified for the purpose of this introductory paper; firstly, terminological issues that arose and secondly common themes that emerged during the paper presentations, discussions and/or written papers. Terminological issues include a brief description of the field of AAC for the benefit of those readers who might not be familiar with the field, whereafter the discussion focuses on the use of the term "complex communication needs" as referring to individuals who use AAC, the differentiation between symbols, signs, symbols sets and systems as well as the terms verbal and nonverbal, pre-linguistic and non-symbolic. The common themes throughout the papers include a discussion on the importance of context in communication, the chicken and egg question (i.e., comprehension and production), issues on multimodality, descriptive strategies for understanding interaction, and the use of typical interaction as a framework for understanding AAC interaction. CONCLUSIONS: In reviewing some of the issues in the field it is apparent that the issues we face now and those faced in AAC during earlier years are similar, however the need for a stronger database is apparent as the approach towards evidence-based practice becomes more prominent. The move to understand the nature of complex relationships in interaction is highlighted, for example, the multiple associations between environment, comprehension as well as the use of multi-modal communication. Whilst it became evident that most of these issues need further research in relation to typical interactions, applications to the field of AAC are most challenging.

A comparison of two strategies of sight word instruction in children with mental disability.

The aim of this research study was to compare two strategies of sight word instruction in children attending a school for learners with moderate to severe mental disability, namely modified orthography (MO) and modified orthography where an association was made between the modification and the traditional orthography (MO/TO) together with a control group (TO). Thirty-three participants were matched according to their gender, receptive language skills and alphabet knowledge and assigned to the three groups, after which they were taught 10 sight words by using one of the above-mentioned strategies for 2 weeks. Word identification scores were obtained prior to teaching, on a daily basis during teaching, and after 3 weeks of withdrawal to determine the retention of identified words. Results show that individuals with moderate to severe mental disability are able to learn sight words through any of the three strategies implemented. Although there was no statistically significant difference between the three groups on a 5% level, significance on a 10% level was recorded for the MO/TO and TO groups. The order of effectiveness as measured by group averages on word identification was: MO/TO, TO and MO. The clinical implication of these results is that by using MO/TO as teaching strategy for sight words, individuals with limited literacy skills would be able to derive meaning from the written word while forming an association between the modification and the orthography. This could provide early reading success and enhance word identification.

Comparison of the learnability and retention between Blissymbols and CyberGlyphs.

BACKGROUND: There are a variety of graphic symbol sets/systems (GSSs) currently used in the field of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Various characteristics of these graphic symbol systems affect learnability and should be considered in order to make a meaningful match between the user of AAC and the system. Although a variety of studies on learnability of graphic systems have been conducted in the past, all studies conducted included participants from Western countries. AIMS: To compare two symbol systems, namely Blissymbolics and CyberGlyphs in terms of learnability. To identify the overall performance between Blissymbolics and CyberGlyphs in terms of the percentage of symbols correctly identified at the various stages. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A quasi-experimental crossover design between groups was carried out on two homogeneous groups of typically developing, Northern Sotho-speaking children. Data were obtained by teaching 80 different referents (40 from each symbol system) to 50 Northern Sotho speaking regular students from South Africa, ranging from grade 4 to 6. The participants were tested on symbol recognition at four different stages: after initial training, after a revision period, after a 7-day withdrawal period and after 30 days of withdrawal. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The overall results indicated that the ease of learning and memory retention of the CyberGlyphs were higher than that of Blissymbols, irrespective of the group or the sequence of exposure. Possible reasons for the differences are discussed. CyberGlyphs seem to be more accessible as the symbols in general seem to be more detailed and also are meant to be hand drawn rather than computer or stencil produced. Within this context, CyberGlyphs could be easier to access visually than Blissymbolics, especially for children who do not have extensive experience in dealing with geometric shapes, particularly for the children who do not come from rich literacy backgrounds or who do not have rich visual perceptual experiences to draw from. CONCLUSIONS: Even though initial learning might be faster for CyberGlyphs than for Blissymbolics in certain populations, there may be other factors to consider when making a choice between the two graphic symbol systems. Within the clinical setting CyberGlyphs can provide the individual who uses AAC with a more user-friendly system as an entrance to the use of other graphic symbol systems. This may be especially important in contexts where issues surrounding poverty and lack of early exposure to literacy exist.

The iconicity and ease of learning of picture communication symbols: a study with Afrikaans-speaking children.

Graphic symbols form an important part of most augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) users' communication systems. Studies focusing on the way different graphic symbols are learned and retained are pivotal for a better understanding of the processes involved. The current study set out to determine how accurately typically developing urban, 6-year-old Afrikaans-speaking children could identify 16 Picture Communication Symbols (PCS) presented thematically on a communication overlay, and also how accurately they could recognize these symbols following exposure to a learning experience. Participants, divided into two cohorts, were presented with a 16-matrix overlay and required to match symbols with spoken Afrikaans labels. They were then divided into two groups, one group receiving training in the meaning of the symbols and the other group receiving no training. Finally the test-procedure was repeated. Results indicated that the 16 PCS symbols had an iconicity of 12.5% (accuracy score > 50%), and that there was a significant improvement in both the experimental and the control groups' post-test results.

Associations with Minspeak icons.

UNLABELLED: Although the Minspeak approach is used on communication devices worldwide, little research has been conducted on its applicability within specific cultural contexts. The impact that users' familiarity of symbols and associations can have on learnability necessitates more systematic research. This study was an investigation into the associations which young South African adults from a tertiary education institution make with selected Minspeak icons, used in Unity software. Associations with the 12 core icons of the UniChat program were elicited from 480 able-bodied tertiary education students, using a cueing questionnaire. Each participant completed one questionnaire on one icon, so that 40 response questionnaires were obtained per icon. The responses from the questionnaires were pruned and computerised. Two analyses were done from these data: Firstly, the percentage of common associations per icon was calculated, and secondly, the elicited associations were compared to the current Unity vocabulary on a word and conceptual level. The results indicate that some of the icons and their encoded vocabulary items might be used successfully in the South African context, while others need to be adapted to be locally relevant. The results emphasize that iconic encoding systems based on commercially available graphic representational systems cannot merely be imported to South Africa due to the multicultural and multilingual nature of the context. LEARNING OUTCOMES: As a result of this activity (1) the participant will be able to understand different types of associational responses based on icons used in Minspeak; (2) the participant will be able to understand the cultural relevance of some aspects of the Unity application programme; and (3) the participant will be able to identify different strategies that can be used to describe the cultural relevance o of the Unity application programme.

The coping responses of the adolescent siblings of children with severe disabilities.

PURPOSE: There is a paucity of literature conducted on adolescents' perceptions of their siblings with severe disabilities. The period of adolescence is characterized by personal and emotional conflicts resulting from teenagers' search towards self-identity and autonomy and exploration of the boundaries of parental support. The study attempts to describe the coping responses of these adolescent siblings in their adjustment to the family stressor of having a sibling with a disability; and the adolescents' available coping resources. METHOD: This study is qualitative in nature and open-ended, structured interviews were conducted with 19 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 15 years who had a sibling with severe disabilities. The interviews were then analysed according to categories using an editing analysis style. RESULTS: The results indicated that the subjects reported limited family interaction and were often reticent in expressing their feelings about their sibling with a disability. In addition, they expressed guilt feelings regarding their siblings with disabilities. Furthermore, siblings of children with severe disabilities received limited information and guidance regarding their sibling's disability. CONCLUSION: The need for professional support to facilitate adolescents' coping with the disability and its consequences as well as the establishment of strong support networks for these adolescents became evident.