Biosignal comparison for autism assessment using machine learning models and virtual reality.

Clinical assessment procedures encounter challenges in terms of objectivity because they rely on subjective data. Computational psychiatry proposes overcoming this limitation by introducing biosignal-based assessments able to detect clinical biomarkers, while virtual reality (VR) can offer ecological settings for measurement. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder where many biosignals have been tested to improve assessment procedures. However, in ASD research there is a lack of studies systematically comparing biosignals for the automatic classification of ASD when recorded simultaneously in ecological settings, and comparisons among previous studies are challenging due to methodological inconsistencies. In this study, we examined a VR screening tool consisting of four virtual scenes, and we compared machine learning models based on implicit (motor skills and eye movements) and explicit (behavioral responses) biosignals. Machine learning models were developed for each biosignal within the virtual scenes and then combined into a final model per biosignal. A linear support vector classifier with recursive feature elimination was used and tested using nested cross-validation. The final model based on motor skills exhibited the highest robustness in identifying ASD, achieving an AUC of 0.89 (SD = 0.08). The best behavioral model showed an AUC of 0.80, while further research is needed for the eye-movement models due to limitations with the eye-tracking glasses. These findings highlight the potential of motor skills in enhancing objectivity and reliability in the early assessment of ASD compared to other biosignals.

Social Signal Processing in Affective Virtual Reality: Human-Shaped Agents Increase Electrodermal Activity in an Elicited Negative Environment.

Prior research on affect elicitation indicates that stimuli with social content (pictures or videos) are more arousing than nonsocial stimuli. In particular, they elicit stronger physiological arousal as measured by electrodermal activity (EDA; i.e., social EDA effect). However, it is unclear how this effect applies to virtual reality (VR), which enables an enhanced sense of presence (SoP) and ecological validity. The study here approached this question from a social-emotional VR framework. A sample of N = 72 participants (55 percent women) experienced a set of six virtual environments (VEs) in the form of emotional parks specifically designed to elicit positive, negative, or neutral affectivity. Half of these VEs included human-shaped agents (social context) and the other half omitted these agents (nonsocial context). The results supported the social EDA effect, which in addition was amplified by the reported SoP. Importantly, the VE featuring a social negative content qualified this observed social EDA effect. The finding is discussed in the light of a negativity bias reported in affect literature, through which negative stimuli typically mobilize attention and bodily activation as a mechanism linked to stress responses. The study's implications extend to the use of VR in both research and practical applications, emphasizing the role of social content in influencing affective and physiological responses.

Beyond Reality: Exploring the effect of different virtual reality environments on visual assessment of cakes.

Visual assessment triggers physiological, emotional, and cognitive responses in consumer behavior. This confluence of signals can be influenced by context, which plays a crucial role in eating behavior. The strategies used to evoke scenarios that enhance ecological validity in sensory experiences have evolved in the last years to include immersive technologies and virtual reality (VR) to simulate the complexity of the real world and predict consumer preferences. This study explored VR's effect on visual liking and hedonic responses of five virtual cakes in two virtual contexts designed with advanced 3D modeling and photogrammetry techniques to ensure high realism and immersion. Although the virtual contexts themselves did not impact liking ratings, the variables "context-cake," "age," and "subjective hunger" had a significant effect on the visual liking of cakes. A Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) questionnaire showed significant differences in responses for various terms related to the intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of the five cakes. Finally, the internal preference map separated two consumer patterns of visual liking: traditional versus innovative.

[Virtual reality and digital biomarkers: a clinical tool for early autism diagnosis]. / Realidad virtual y biomarcadores digitales: una herramienta clínica para el diagnóstico del autismo.

INTRODUCTION: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition which traditional assessment procedures encounter certain limitations. The current ASD research field is exploring and endorsing innovative methods to assess the disorder early on, based on the automatic detection of biomarkers. However, many of these procedures lack ecological validity in their measurements. In this context, virtual reality (VR) shows promise for objectively recording biosignals while users experience ecological situations. METHODS: This study outlines a novel and playful VR procedure for the early assessment of ASD, relying on multimodal biosignal recording. During a VR experience featuring 12 virtual scenes, eye gaze, motor skills, electrodermal activity and behavioural performance were measured in 39 children with ASD and 42 control peers. Machine learning models were developed to identify digital biomarkers and classify autism. RESULTS: Biosignals reported varied performance in detecting ASD, while the combined model resulting from the combination of specific-biosignal models demonstrated the ability to identify ASD with an accuracy of 83% (SD = 3%) and an AUC of 0.91 (SD = 0.04). DISCUSSION: This screening tool may support ASD diagnosis by reinforcing the outcomes of traditional assessment procedures.

Introducción: El Trastorno del Espectro Autista (TEA) es un trastorno del neurodesarrollo, y sus procedimientos tradicionales de evaluación encuentran ciertas limitaciones. El actual campo de investigación sobre TEA está explorando y respaldando métodos innovadores para evaluar el trastorno tempranamente, basándose en la detección automática de biomarcadores. Sin embargo, muchos de estos procedimientos carecen de validez ecológica en sus mediciones. En este contexto, la realidad virtual (RV) presenta un prometedor potencial para registrar objetivamente bioseñales mientras los usuarios experimentan situaciones ecológicas. Métodos: Este estudio describe un novedoso y lúdico procedimiento de RV para la evaluación temprana del TEA, basado en la grabación multimodal de bioseñales. Durante una experiencia de RV con 12 escenas virtuales, se midieron la mirada, las habilidades motoras, la actividad electrodermal y el rendimiento conductual en 39 niños con TEA y 42 compañeros de control. Se desarrollaron modelos de aprendizaje automático para identificar biomarcadores digitales y clasificar el autismo. Resultados: Las bioseñales reportaron un rendimiento variado en la detección del TEA, mientras que el modelo resultante de la combinación de los modelos de las bioseñales demostró la capacidad de identificar el TEA con una precisión del 83% (DE = 3%) y un AUC de 0.91 (DE = 0.04). Discusión: Esta herramienta de detección puede respaldar el diagnóstico del TEA al reforzar los resultados de los procedimientos tradicionales de evaluación.

Hybrid brain/neural interface and autonomous vision-guided whole-arm exoskeleton control to perform activities of daily living (ADLs).

BACKGROUND: The aging of the population and the progressive increase of life expectancy in developed countries is leading to a high incidence of age-related cerebrovascular diseases, which affect people's motor and cognitive capabilities and might result in the loss of arm and hand functions. Such conditions have a detrimental impact on people's quality of life. Assistive robots have been developed to help people with motor or cognitive disabilities to perform activities of daily living (ADLs) independently. Most of the robotic systems for assisting on ADLs proposed in the state of the art are mainly external manipulators and exoskeletal devices. The main objective of this study is to compare the performance of an hybrid EEG/EOG interface to perform ADLs when the user is controlling an exoskeleton rather than using an external manipulator. METHODS: Ten impaired participants (5 males and 5 females, mean age 52 ± 16 years) were instructed to use both systems to perform a drinking task and a pouring task comprising multiple subtasks. For each device, two modes of operation were studied: synchronous mode (the user received a visual cue indicating the sub-tasks to be performed at each time) and asynchronous mode (the user started and finished each of the sub-tasks independently). Fluent control was assumed when the time for successful initializations ranged below 3 s and a reliable control in case it remained below 5 s. NASA-TLX questionnaire was used to evaluate the task workload. For the trials involving the use of the exoskeleton, a custom Likert-Scale questionnaire was used to evaluate the user's experience in terms of perceived comfort, safety, and reliability. RESULTS: All participants were able to control both systems fluently and reliably. However, results suggest better performances of the exoskeleton over the external manipulator (75% successful initializations remain below 3 s in case of the exoskeleton and bellow 5s in case of the external manipulator). CONCLUSIONS: Although the results of our study in terms of fluency and reliability of EEG control suggest better performances of the exoskeleton over the external manipulator, such results cannot be considered conclusive, due to the heterogeneity of the population under test and the relatively limited number of participants.

The whole-body motor skills of children with autism spectrum disorder taking goal-directed actions in virtual reality.

Many symptoms of the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are evident in early infancy, but ASD is usually diagnosed much later by procedures lacking objective measurements. It is necessary to anticipate the identification of ASD by improving the objectivity of the procedure and the use of ecological settings. In this context, atypical motor skills are reaching consensus as a promising ASD biomarker, regardless of the level of symptom severity. This study aimed to assess differences in the whole-body motor skills between 20 children with ASD and 20 children with typical development during the execution of three tasks resembling regular activities presented in virtual reality. The virtual tasks asked to perform precise and goal-directed actions with different limbs vary in their degree of freedom of movement. Parametric and non-parametric statistical methods were applied to analyze differences in children's motor skills. The findings endorsed the hypothesis that when particular goal-directed movements are required, the type of action could modulate the presence of motor abnormalities in ASD. In particular, the ASD motor abnormalities emerged in the task requiring to take with the upper limbs goal-directed actions with low degree of freedom. The motor abnormalities covered (1) the body part mainly involved in the action, and (2) further body parts not directly involved in the movement. Findings were discussed against the background of atypical prospective control of movements and visuomotor discoordination in ASD. These findings contribute to advance the understanding of motor skills in ASD while deepening ecological and objective assessment procedures based on VR.

Virtual humans for ASD intervention: a brief scoping review / Humanos virtuales para la intervención en TEA: una breve revisión del alcance

Abstract Individuals with autism spectrum disorder may present social-communicative and behavioral deficits. Recently, research on treatment and diagnosis has shifted its focus to the application of new tech nologies. Among them is virtual reality, which guarantees a high sense of realism to the experience and allows the implementation of a virtual agent that facilitates the use of the application. In social skills interventions, it has been mostly chosen to implement a virtual agent with a human appearance. Virtual humans guide the user-system interaction through the use of verbal and nonverbal language. They can be equipped with responsiveness: the ability to provide responses to the user based on data recorded during the use of the technology. Responsiveness is functional when the goal is to create an interaction similar to that of everyday life, as it allows for behavioral responses and, at a more sophisticated level, vocal responses. Considering virtual agents capable of holding a conversation with the user, to date three different methods have been implemented that make communication more or less realistic. This brief review proposes a synopsis of relevant virtual humans' features and highlights some key ASD research areas wherein virtual humans are implemented for diagnosis and treatment. A total of 11 studies were selected and their analysis was summarized into 7 main categories. Finally, the clinical and technological implications of the results found were discussed.

Resumen Los individuos con trastorno del espectro autista pueden presentar déficits socio-comunicativos y conductuales. Recientemente, la investigación sobre el tratamiento y el diagnóstico se ha centrado en la aplicación de nuevas tecnologías. Entre ellas se encuentra la realidad virtual, que garantiza un alto sentido de realismo a la experiencia y permite la implementación de un agente virtual que facilite el uso de la aplicación. En las intervenciones de habilidades sociales, se ha optado mayoritariamente por implementar un agente virtual con apariencia humana. Los humanos virtuales guían la interacción usuario-sistema mediante el uso de lenguaje verbal y no verbal. Estos pueden estar dotados de responsividad: la capacidad de proporcionar respuestas al usuario basadas en los datos registrados durante el uso de la tecnología. La responsividad es funcional cuando el objetivo es crear una interacción similar a la de la vida cotidiana, ya que permite dar respuestas conductuales y, a un nivel más sofisticado, respuestas vocales. Considerando los agentes virtuales capaces de mantener una conversación con el usuario, hasta la fecha se han implementado tres métodos diferentes que hacen que la comunicación sea más o menos realista. Esta breve revisión propone una sinopsis de las características de los humanos virtuales relevantes y destaca algunas áreas de investigación clave del TEA en las que se implemen tan humanos virtuales para el diagnóstico y el tratamiento. Se seleccionó un total de 11 estudios y su análisis se resumió en 7 categorías principales. Por último, se discuten las implicaciones clínicas y tecnológicas de los resultados encontrados.

Virtual humans for ASD intervention: a brief scoping review.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder may present social-communicative and behavioral deficits. Recently, research on treatment and diagnosis has shifted its focus to the application of new technologies. Among them is virtual reality, which guarantees a high sense of realism to the experience and allows the implementation of a virtual agent that facilitates the use of the application. In social skills interventions, it has been mostly chosen to implement a virtual agent with a human appearance. Virtual humans guide the user-system interaction through the use of verbal and nonverbal language. They can be equipped with responsiveness: the ability to provide responses to the user based on data recorded during the use of the technology. Responsiveness is functional when the goal is to create an interaction similar to that of everyday life, as it allows for behavioral responses and, at a more sophisticated level, vocal responses. Considering virtual agents capable of holding a conversation with the user, to date three different methods have been implemented that make communication more or less realistic. This brief review proposes a synopsis of relevant virtual humans' features and highlights some key ASD research areas wherein virtual humans are implemented for diagnosis and treatment. A total of 11 studies were selected and their analysis was summarized into 7 main categories. Finally, the clinical and technological implications of the results found were discussed.

Los individuos con trastorno del espectro autista pueden presentar déficits socio-comunicativos y conductuales. Recientemente, la investigación sobre el tratamiento y el diagnóstico se ha centrado en la aplicación de nuevas tecnologías. Entre ellas se encuentra la realidad virtual, que garantiza un alto sentido de realismo a la experiencia y permite la implementación de un agente virtual que facilite el uso de la aplicación. En las intervenciones de habilidades sociales, se ha optado mayoritariamente por implementar un agente virtual con apariencia humana. Los humanos virtuales guían la interacción usuario-sistema mediante el uso de lenguaje verbal y no verbal. Estos pueden estar dotados de responsividad: la capacidad de proporcionar respuestas al usuario basadas en los datos registrados durante el uso de la tecnología. La responsividad es funcional cuando el objetivo es crear una interacción similar a la de la vida cotidiana, ya que permite dar respuestas conductuales y, a un nivel más sofisticado, respuestas vocales. Considerando los agentes virtuales capaces de mantener una conversación con el usuario, hasta la fecha se han implementado tres métodos diferentes que hacen que la comunicación sea más o menos realista. Esta breve revisión propone una sinopsis de las características de los humanos virtuales relevantes y destaca algunas áreas de investigación clave del TEA en las que se implementan humanos virtuales para el diagnóstico y el tratamiento. Se seleccionó un total de 11 estudios y su análisis se resumió en 7 categorías principales. Por último, se discuten las implicaciones clínicas y tecnológicas de los resultados encontrados.

How priming with body odors affects decision speeds in consumer behavior.

To date, odor research has primarily focused on the behavioral effects of common odors on consumer perception and choices. We report a study that examines, for the first time, the effects of human body odor cues on consumer purchase behaviors. The influence of human chemosignals produced in three conditions, namely happiness, fear, a relaxed condition (rest), and a control condition (no odor), were examined on willingness to pay (WTP) judgments across various products. We focused on the speed with which participants reached such decisions. The central finding revealed that participants exposed to human odors reached decisions significantly faster than the no odor control group. The main driving force is that human body odors activate the presence of others during decision-making. This, in turn, affects response speed. The broader implications of this finding for consumer behavior are discussed.

Recognizing Personality Traits Using Consumer Behavior Patterns in a Virtual Retail Store.

Virtual reality (VR) is a useful tool to study consumer behavior while they are immersed in a realistic scenario. Among several other factors, personality traits have been shown to have a substantial influence on purchasing behavior. The primary objective of this study was to classify consumers based on the Big Five personality domains using their behavior while performing different tasks in a virtual shop. The personality recognition was ascertained using behavioral measures received from VR hardware, including eye-tracking, navigation, posture and interaction. Responses from 60 participants were collected while performing free and directed search tasks in a virtual hypermarket. A set of behavioral features was processed, and the personality domains were recognized using a statistical supervised machine learning classifier algorithm via a support vector machine. The results suggest that the open-mindedness personality type can be classified using eye gaze patterns, while extraversion is related to posture and interactions. However, a combination of signals must be exhibited to detect conscientiousness and negative emotionality. The combination of all measures and tasks provides better classification accuracy for all personality domains. The study indicates that a consumer's personality can be recognized using the behavioral sensors included in commercial VR devices during a purchase in a virtual retail store.

Intervenciones tecnológicas adaptativas para el trastorno del espectro autista: una revisión bibliográfica / Adaptive technological interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a literature review

Resumen Los individuos con trastornos del espectro autista suelen describirse con deficiencias comunicativas, sociales, emocionales y de comportamiento. A menudo están aislados y son pasivos, con pocas oportunidades de interacción positiva y constructiva con el mundo exterior. Por otra parte, pueden mostrar comportamientos retraídos, estereotipados y disruptivos. Estas condiciones pueden dificultar seriamente sus habilidades adaptativas al ambiente, con consecuencias negativas en su calidad de vida. La heterogeneidad fenotípica y la manifestación, así como la gravedad de los síntomas, pueden variar considerablemente según el niño. Esos determinan la necesidad de intervenciones personalizadas y adaptivas según las necesidades específicas, incluyendo factores como la edad, las habilidades intelectuales y las áreas afectadas específicas. Una intervención temprana promovería las habilidades adaptativas, la autodeterminación y la autonomía hacia el entorno. No obstante, los tiempos de esperas y los costes no permiten una evaluación temprana y como consecuencia los tiempos de intervención se retrasan afectando la cualidad de vida de los niños y de los pa dres. Además, los programas tradicionales de intervención dependen de la experiencia de los terapeutas. Una posible forma de superar este problema es el uso de tecnología adaptativa objetiva según las necesidades. El objetivo de este artículo es proporcionar una visión general de las pruebas empíricas disponible en los últimos siete años. En total, se seleccionaron 8 estudios, con 132 participantes que utilizaron 4 sistemas tecnológicos. Por último, se discuten las implicaciones tecnológicas, clínicas, psicológicas y rehabilitadoras de los hallazgos. Se esbozaron directrices prácticas dentro de esta área temática como perspectivas de investigación futuras.

Abstract Individuals with autistic spectrum disorder are often described as having communication, social, emo tional, and behavioral impairments. They are often isolated and passive, with few opportunities for positive and constructive interaction with the outside world. Moreover, they may exhibit withdrawn, stereotyped and disruptive behaviors. The aforementioned conditions can seriously hamper their ability to adapt to the environment, with negative consequences on their quality of life. Phenotypic heterogeneity and manifestation, as well as symptom severity, can vary greatly from child to child. These determine the need for individualized and adaptive interventions according to specific needs, including factors such as age, intellectual ability, and specific affected areas. Early intervention would promote adaptive skills, self-determination, and autonomy towards the environment. However, wait times and costs do not allow for early assessment, and therefore intervention times are delayed, affecting the quality of life of children and parents. In addition, traditional intervention programs depend on the expertise of the therapists. One possible way to overcome this problem is by using objective adaptive technologies based on needs. This article aims to provide an overview of the empirical evidence available over the past seven years. Overall, 8 studies were selected, with 132 participants using 4 technological systems. Finally, the technological, clinical, psychological, and rehabilitative implications of the findings are discussed. Practical guidelines within this topic area are outlined as future research perspectives.

[Adaptive technological interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a literature review]. / Intervenciones tecnológicas adaptativas para el trastorno del espectro autista: una revisión bibliográfica.

Individuals with autistic spectrum disorder are often described as having communication, social, emotional, nd behavioral impairments. They are often isolated and passive, with few opportunities for positive and constructive interaction with the outside world. Moreover, they may exhibit withdrawn, stereotyped and disruptive behaviors. The aforementioned conditions can seriously hamper their ability to adapt to the environment, with negative consequences on their quality of life. Phenotypic heterogeneity and manifestation, as well as symptom severity, can vary greatly from child to child. These determine the need for individualized and adaptive interventions according to specific needs, including factors such as age, intellectual ability, and specific affected areas. Early intervention would promote adaptive skills, self-determination, and autonomy towards the environment. However, wait times and costs do not allow for early assessment, and therefore intervention times are delayed, affecting the quality of life of children and parents. In addition, traditional intervention programs depend on the expertise of the therapists. One possible way to overcome this problem is by using objective adaptive technologies based on needs. This article aims to provide an overview of the empirical evidence available over the past seven years. Overall, 8 studies were selected, with 132 participants using 4 technological systems. Finally, the technological, clinical, psychological, and rehabilitative implications of the findings are discussed. Practical guidelines within this topic area are outlined as future research perspectives.

Los individuos con trastornos del espectro autista suelen describirse con deficiencias comunicativas, sociales, emocionales y de comportamiento. A menudo están aislados y son pasivos, con pocas oportunidades de interacción positiva y constructiva con el mundo exterior. Por otra parte, pueden mostrar comportamientos retraídos, estereotipados y disruptivos. Estas condiciones pueden dificultar seriamente sus habilidades adaptativas al ambiente, con consecuencias negativas en su calidad de vida. La heterogeneidad fenotípica y la manifestación, así como la gravedad de los síntomas, pueden variar considerablemente según el niño. Esos determinan la necesidad de intervenciones personalizadas y adaptivas según las necesidades específicas, incluyendo factores como la edad, las habilidades intelectuales y las áreas afectadas específicas. Una intervención temprana promovería las habilidades adaptativas, la autodeterminación y la autonomía hacia el entorno. No obstante, los tiempos de esperas y los costes no permiten una evaluación temprana y como consecuencia los tiempos de intervención se retrasan afectando la cualidad de vida de los niños y de los padres. Además, los programas tradicionales de intervención dependen de la experiencia de los terapeutas. Una posible forma de superar este problema es el uso de tecnología adaptativa objetiva según las necesidades. El objetivo de este artículo es proporcionar una visión general de las pruebas empíricas disponible en los últimos siete años. En total, se seleccionaron 8 estudios, con 132 participantes que utilizaron 4 sistemas tecnológicos. Por último, se discuten las implicaciones tecnológicas, clínicas, psicológicas y rehabilitadoras de los hallazgos. Se esbozaron directrices prácticas dentro de esta área temática como perspectivas de investigación futuras.

Eye gaze as a biomarker in the recognition of autism spectrum disorder using virtual reality and machine learning: A proof of concept for diagnosis.

The core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) mainly relate to social communication and interactions. ASD assessment involves expert observations in neutral settings, which introduces limitations and biases related to lack of objectivity and does not capture performance in real-world settings. To overcome these limitations, advances in technologies (e.g., virtual reality) and sensors (e.g., eye-tracking tools) have been used to create realistic simulated environments and track eye movements, enriching assessments with more objective data than can be obtained via traditional measures. This study aimed to distinguish between autistic and typically developing children using visual attention behaviors through an eye-tracking paradigm in a virtual environment as a measure of attunement to and extraction of socially relevant information. The 55 children participated. Autistic children presented a higher number of frames, both overall and per scenario, and showed higher visual preferences for adults over children, as well as specific preferences for adults' rather than children's faces on which looked more at bodies. A set of multivariate supervised machine learning models were developed using recursive feature selection to recognize ASD based on extracted eye gaze features. The models achieved up to 86% accuracy (sensitivity = 91%) in recognizing autistic children. Our results should be taken as preliminary due to the relatively small sample size and the lack of an external replication dataset. However, to our knowledge, this constitutes a first proof of concept in the combined use of virtual reality, eye-tracking tools, and machine learning for ASD recognition. LAY SUMMARY: Core symptoms in children with ASD involve social communication and interaction. ASD assessment includes expert observations in neutral settings, which show limitations and biases related to lack of objectivity and do not capture performance in real settings. To overcome these limitations, this work aimed to distinguish between autistic and typically developing children in visual attention behaviors through an eye-tracking paradigm in a virtual environment as a measure of attunement to, and extraction of, socially relevant information.

Lifestyle segmentation of tourists: the role of personality.

BACKGROUND: The significance of national tourism in the global data highlights the importance of studying the characteristics of Spanish tourists that show interest in visiting Valencia (Spain). Personality traits might influence tourism behavior, and their importance has scarcely been addressed in the prior tourism literature. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to identify the touristic profiles of national tourists based on their lifestyles and to analyze the influence of personality traits in tourism segmentation. METHODOLOGY: 329 individuals participated in this study, they responded questionnaires about sociodemography, personality, lifestyle and a 3-item questionnaire developed by the authors. We performed analysis to obtain profiles by lifestyle, we carried out tests to study differences in personality traits among profiles and we analyzed the effects of the responses to the author-developed questionnaire and the demographic characteristics of the subjects on their cluster membership. RESULTS: The results show that this market can be segmented into four clusters. We found significant statistical differences in personality traits among profiles. In addition, the authors present an author-designed questionnaire that, together with demographic variables, is able to predict participants' profiles. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that lifestyle is an appropriate indicator for this market segmentation and the analysis of its relationship with personality provides a deep comprehension of the resulting profiles. In addition, the profile prediction by the responses to the author-developed questionnaire constitutes a new basis for tourism segmentation, as these predictors might be used as "quick touristic classifiers". IMPLICATIONS OR RECOMMENDATIONS: The study of decision-making processes in tourism allows researchers and sellers to predict tourist behaviors and adapt offers to tourists' preferences and interests.

Effectiveness of a combined transcranial direct current stimulation and virtual reality-based intervention on upper limb function in chronic individuals post-stroke with persistent severe hemiparesis: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Functional impairments derived from the non-use of severely affected upper limb after stroke have been proposed to be mitigated by action observation and imagination-based techniques, whose effectiveness is enhanced when combined with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Preliminary studies in mildly impaired individuals in the acute phase post-stroke show intensified effects when action is facilitated by tDCS and mediated by virtual reality (VR) but the effectiveness in cases of severe impairment and chronic stroke is unknown. This study investigated the effectiveness of a combined tDCS and VR-based intervention in the sensorimotor function of chronic individuals post-stroke with persistent severe hemiparesis compared to conventional physical therapy. METHODS: Twenty-nine participants were randomized into an experimental group, who received 30 minutes of the combined tDCS and VR-based therapy and 30 minutes of conventional physical therapy, or a control group, who exclusively received conventional physical therapy focusing on passive and active assistive range of motion exercises. The sensorimotor function of all participants was assessed before and after 25 one-hour sessions, administered three to five times a week, using the upper extremity subscale of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment, the time and ability subscales of the Wolf Motor Function Test, and the Nottingham Sensory Assessment. RESULTS: A clinically meaningful improvement of the upper limb motor function was consistently revealed in all motor measures after the experimental intervention, but not after conventional physical therapy. Similar limited effects were detected in the sensory function in both groups. CONCLUSION: The combined tDCS and VR-based paradigm provided not only greater but also clinically meaningful improvement in the motor function (and similar sensory effects) in comparison to conventional physical therapy.

Heart rate variability analysis for the assessment of immersive emotional arousal using virtual reality: Comparing real and virtual scenarios.

Many affective computing studies have developed automatic emotion recognition models, mostly using emotional images, audio and videos. In recent years, virtual reality (VR) has been also used as a method to elicit emotions in laboratory environments. However, there is still a need to analyse the validity of VR in order to extrapolate the results it produces and to assess the similarities and differences in physiological responses provoked by real and virtual environments. We investigated the cardiovascular oscillations of 60 participants during a free exploration of a real museum and its virtualisation viewed through a head-mounted display. The differences between the heart rate variability features in the high and low arousal stimuli conditions were analysed through statistical hypothesis testing; and automatic arousal recognition models were developed across the real and the virtual conditions using a support vector machine algorithm with recursive feature selection. The subjects' self-assessments suggested that both museums elicited low and high arousal levels. In addition, the real museum showed differences in terms of cardiovascular responses, differences in vagal activity, while arousal recognition reached 72.92% accuracy. However, we did not find the same arousal-based autonomic nervous system change pattern during the virtual museum exploration. The results showed that, while the direct virtualisation of a real environment might be self-reported as evoking psychological arousal, it does not necessarily evoke the same cardiovascular changes as a real arousing elicitation. These contribute to the understanding of the use of VR in emotion recognition research; future research is needed to study arousal and emotion elicitation in immersive VR.

Why Do We Take Risks? Perception of the Situation and Risk Proneness Predict Domain-Specific Risk Taking.

Risk taking (RT) is a component of the decision-making process in situations that involve uncertainty and in which the probability of each outcome - rewards and/or negative consequences - is already known. The influence of cognitive and emotional processes in decision making may affect how risky situations are addressed. First, inaccurate assessments of situations may constitute a perceptual bias in decision making, which might influence RT. Second, there seems to be consensus that a proneness bias exists, known as risk proneness, which can be defined as the propensity to be attracted to potentially risky activities. In the present study, we take the approach that risk perception and risk proneness affect RT behaviours. The study hypothesises that locus of control, emotion regulation, and executive control act as perceptual biases in RT, and that personality, sensation seeking, and impulsivity traits act as proneness biases in RT. The results suggest that locus of control, emotion regulation and executive control influence certain domains of RT, while personality influences in all domains except the recreational, and sensation seeking and impulsivity are involved in all domains of RT. The results of the study constitute a foundation upon which to build in this research area and can contribute to the increased understanding of human behaviour in risky situations.

Do You See What I See? Effectiveness of 360-Degree vs. 2D Video Ads Using a Neuroscience Approach.

This study compares cognitive and emotional responses to 360-degree vs. static (2D) videos in terms of visual attention, brand recognition, engagement of the prefrontal cortex, and emotions. Hypotheses are proposed based on the interactivity literature, cognitive overload, advertising response model and motivation, opportunity, and ability theoretical frameworks, and tested using neurophysiological tools: electroencephalography, eye-tracking, electrodermal activity, and facial coding. The results revealed that gaze view depends on ad content, visual attention paid being lower in 360-degree FMCG ads than in 2D ads. Brand logo recognition is lower in 360-degree ads than in 2D video ads. Overall, 360-degree ads for durable products increase positive emotions, which carries the risk of non-exposure to some of the ad content. In testing four ads for durable goods and fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) this research explains the mechanism through which 360-degree video ads outperform standard versions.

Competition Enhances the Effectiveness and Motivation of Attention Rehabilitation After Stroke. A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Attention deficits are among the most common cognitive impairments observed after experiencing stroke. However, a very limited number of studies have investigated the effectiveness of interventions that specifically focus on the rehabilitation of attention deficits among subjects with impaired attention. Although several interventions have included the use of computerized programs to provide dynamic stimuli, real-time performance feedback, and motivating tasks, existing studies have not exploited the potential benefits of multi-user interactions. Group-based and competitive interventions have been reported to be more enjoyable and motivating, depending on individual traits, and may potentially be more demanding, which may increase their effectiveness. This study investigated the effectiveness and motivating abilities of an intervention specifically designed to address attention deficits. This intervention combined paper-and-pencil tasks and interactive, computerized, multi-touch exercises, which were administered, either non-competitively or competitively, to a group of 43 individuals with chronic stroke. The mediating effects of competitiveness were evaluated for both intervention effectiveness and motivation. Participants were randomly sorted into two groups and underwent 20 one-hour group-based sessions, during which they either worked individually or competed with peers, according to their group allocation. Participants were assessed before and after the intervention, using the Conners' Continuous Performance Test, the d2 Test of Attention, the Color Trail Test, the Digit Span Test, and the Spatial Span Test. The competitiveness and subjective experiences of the participants after the intervention were investigated with the Revised Competitiveness Index and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, respectively. The results showed that participants who competed demonstrated significantly greater improvements in all cognitive abilities, except for divided attention, and reported greater enjoyment than their non-competitive peers. Both groups reported comparable levels of perceived competence, pressure, and usefulness. Interestingly, the competitiveness of the participants did not alter either the effectiveness or the subjective experience of the intervention. These findings suggest that competition might enhance the effectiveness and enjoyment of rehabilitation interventions designed to address attention deficits in individuals post-stroke, regardless of their level of competitiveness and without having a negative effect on their perceived pressure and competence.

The Influence of Each Facial Feature on How We Perceive and Interpret Human Faces.

Facial information is processed by our brain in such a way that we immediately make judgments about, for example, attractiveness or masculinity or interpret personality traits or moods of other people. The appearance of each facial feature has an effect on our perception of facial traits. This research addresses the problem of measuring the size of these effects for five facial features (eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth, and jaw). Our proposal is a mixed feature-based and image-based approach that allows judgments to be made on complete real faces in the categorization tasks, more than on synthetic, noisy, or partial faces that can influence the assessment. Each facial feature of the faces is automatically classified considering their global appearance using principal component analysis. Using this procedure, we establish a reduced set of relevant specific attributes (each one describing a complete facial feature) to characterize faces. In this way, a more direct link can be established between perceived facial traits and what people intuitively consider an eye, an eyebrow, a nose, a mouth, or a jaw. A set of 92 male faces were classified using this procedure, and the results were related to their scores in 15 perceived facial traits. We show that the relevant features greatly depend on what we are trying to judge. Globally, the eyes have the greatest effect. However, other facial features are more relevant for some judgments like the mouth for happiness and femininity or the nose for dominance.