Sex differences in the intensity-duration relationships of the severe- and extreme-intensity exercise domains.

Extreme-intensity exercise is described by W'ext (analogous to J' for isometric exercise) that is smaller than W' of severe-intensity exercise (W'sev) in males. Sex differences in exercise tolerance appear to diminish at near-maximal exercise, however, there is evidence of greater contributions of peripheral fatigue (i.e. potentiated twitch force; Qpot) in males during extreme-intensity exercise. Therefore, the current study tested the hypotheses that J'ext would not be different between males and females, however, males would exhibit a greater reduction in neuromuscular function (i.e. maximal voluntary contraction, MVC; Qpot) following extreme-intensity exercise. Seven males and 7 females completed three severe- (Tlim: 2-4 min, S3; 5-8 min, S2; 9-15 min, S1) and three extreme-intensity (70, 80, 90%MVC) knee-extension bouts. MVC and Qpot relative to baseline were compared at task failure and at 150 s of recovery. J'ext was significantly less than J'sev in males (2.4 ± 1.2kJ vs 3.9 ± 1.3kJ; p = 0.03) and females (1.6 ± 0.8kJ vs 2.9 ± 1.7kJ; p = 0.05); however, there were no sex differences in J'ext or J'sev. MVC (%Baseline) was greater at task failure following extreme-intensity exercise (76.5 ± 20.0% vs 51.5 ± 11.5% in males, 75.7 ± 19.4% vs 66.7 ± 17.4% in females), but was not different at 150 s of recovery (95.7 ± 11.8% in males, 91.1 ± 14.2% in females). Reduction in Qpot, however, was greater in males (51.9 ± 16.3% vs 60.6 ± 15.5%) and was significantly correlated with J'ext (r2 = 0.90, p < 0.001). Although there were no differences in the magnitude of J'ext, differences in MVC and Qpot are evidence of sex-specific responses and highlight the importance of appropriately characterizing exercise intensity regarding exercise domains when comparing physiological responses in males and females.Highlights We have previously shown evidence that extreme-intensity dynamic exercise is described by W'ext in males and smaller than W'sev. We currently tested for potential sex differences in J'ext (isometric analogue to W') and neuromuscular responses (i.e. maximal voluntary contraction, MVC; potentiated twitch force, Qpot) during extreme-intensity exercise.J'ext and extreme-intensity exercise tolerance was not different between males and females. The reduction in MVC was not different across extreme-intensity exercise across males and females, whereas the reduction in Qpot was greater in males following all extreme-intensity exercises, although not after exercise at 90%MVC.Together, although extreme-intensity exercise tolerance is not different, these data highlight differences in the contributing mechanisms of fatigue during severe- and extreme-intensity exercise between males and females.

The acute effects of passive heating on endothelial function, muscle microvascular oxygen delivery, and expression of serum HSP90α.

Passive heating has been a therapeutic tool used to elevate core temperature and induce increases in cardiac output, blood flow, and shear stress. We aimed to determine the effects of a single bout of passive heating on endothelial function and serum heat shock protein 90α (HSP90α) levels in young, healthy subjects. 8 healthy subjects were recruited to participate in one bout of whole-body passive heating via immersion in a 40 °C hot tub to maintain a 1 °C increase in rectal temperature for 60 min. Twenty-four hours after heating, shear-rate corrected endothelium-dependent dilation increased (pre: 0.004 ± 0.002%SRAUC; post: 0.006 ± 0.003%SRAUC; p = 0.034) but serum [HSP90α] was not changed (pre: 36.7 ± 10.3 ng/mL; post: 40.6 ± 15.9 ng/mL; p = 0.39). Neither resting muscle O2 utilization (pre: 0.17 ± 0.11 mL O2 min-1 (100 g)-1; post: 0.14 ± 0.09 mL O2 min-1 (100 g)-1); p = 0.28) nor mean arterial pressure (pre: 74 ± 11 mmHg; post: 73 ± 11 mmHg; p = 0.79) were influenced by the heating intervention. Finally, time to peak after cuff release was significantly delayed for % O2 sat (TTPpre = 39 ± 8.9 s and TTPpost = 43.5 ± 8.2 s; p = 0.007) and deoxy-[heme] (TTPpre = 41.3 ± 18.1 s and TTPpost = 51.4 ± 16.3 s; p = 0.018), with no effect on oxy-[heme] (p = 0.19) and total-[heme] (p = 0.41). One bout of passive heating improved endothelium-dependent dilation 24 h later in young, healthy subjects. This data suggests that passive heat treatments may provide a simple intervention for improving vascular health.

Neuromuscular recovery from severe- and extreme-intensity exercise in men and women.

Maximal voluntary contraction force (MVC), potentiated twitch force (Qpot), and voluntary activation (%VA) recover to baseline within 90 s following extreme-intensity exercise. However, methodological limitations mask important recovery kinetics. We hypothesized reductions in MVC, Qpot, and %VA at task failure following extreme-intensity exercise would be less than following severe-intensity exercise, and Qpot and MVC following extreme-intensity exercise would show significant recovery within 120 s but remain depressed following severe-intensity exercise. Twelve subjects (6 men) completed 2 severe-intensity (40, 50% MVC) and 2 extreme-intensity (70, 80% MVC) isometric knee-extension exercise bouts to task failure (Tlim). Neuromuscular function was measured at baseline, Tlim, and through 150 s of recovery. Each intensity significantly reduced MVC and Qpot compared with baseline. MVC was greater at Tlim (p < 0.01) and at 150 s of recovery (p = 0.004) following exercise at 80% MVC compared with severe-intensity exercise. Partial recovery of MVC and Qpot were detected within 150 s following Tlim for each exercise intensity; Qpot recovered to baseline values within 150 s of recovery following exercise at 80% MVC. No differences in %VA were detected pre- to post-exercise or across recovery for any intensity. Although further analysis showed sex-specific differences in MVC and Qpot, future studies should closely examine sex-dependent responses to extreme-intensity exercise. It is clear, however, that these data reinforce that mechanisms limiting exercise tolerance during extreme-intensity exercise recover quickly. Novelty: Severe- and extreme-intensity exercise cause independent responses in fatigue accumulation and the subsequent recovery time courses. Recovery of MVC and Qpot occurs much faster following extreme-intensity exercise in both men and women.

Influence of muscular contraction on vascular conductance during exercise above versus below critical power.

We tested the hypothesis that limb vascular conductance (LVC) would increase during the immediate recovery phase of dynamic exercise above, but not below, critical power (CP) indicating a threshold for muscular contraction-induced impedance of limb blood flow (LBF). CP (115 ± 26 W) was determined in 7 men and 7 women who subsequently performed ∼5 min of near-supine cycling exercise both below and above CP. LVC demonstrated a greater increase during immediate recovery and remained significantly higher following exercise above, compared to below, CP (all p < 0.001). Power output was associated with the immediate increases in LVC following exercise above, but not below, CP (p < 0.001; r = 0.85). Additionally, variance in percent LBF impedance was significantly lower above (CV: 10.7 %), compared to below (CV: 53.2 %), CP (p < 0.01). CP appears to represent a threshold above which the characteristics of LBF impedance by muscular contraction become intensity-dependent. These data suggest a critical level of LBF impedance relative to contraction intensity exists and, once attained, may promote the progressive metabolic and neuromuscular responses known to occur above CP.

Influence of blood flow occlusion on muscular recruitment and fatigue during maximal-effort small muscle-mass exercise.

KEY POINTS: The heavy-to-severe intensity exercise threshold (i.e. critical force) distinguishes between steady-state and progressive metabolic and neuromuscular responses to exercise. High levels of skeletal muscle sensory feedback related to peripheral fatigue development are thought to restrict motor unit activation and limit exercise tolerance. Utilizing limb blood flow occlusion, we demonstrate that critical force reflects an oxygen-delivery-dependent balance between motor unit activation and peripheral fatigue development. Our findings suggest that mechanisms which determine the total force-producing capacity of exercising skeletal muscle are significantly altered during blood flow occlusion. These findings may have widespread implications for exercise tolerance in patient populations who experience partial vascular occlusion or altered neuromuscular reflexes. ABSTRACT: High levels of muscle sensory feedback restrict motor unit activation and limit exercise tolerance. The roles of muscle fatigue development and motor unit activation in determining the heavy- to severe-intensity threshold (critical force; CF) remain unclear. This study utilized blood flow occlusion (OCC) to determine relationships between muscle fatigue development and motor unit activation during the determination of CF. We hypothesized that (1) OCC would exacerbate peripheral fatigue development and increase the rate of motor unit deactivation, and (2) blood flow reperfusion (REP) would result in muscle recovery and re-recruitment of motor units despite continuous maximal effort, (3) resulting in an end-exercise force not different from CF. Seven young, healthy subjects performed maximal-effort rhythmic handgrip exercise for 5 min under control conditions (CON) and during OCC and REP. Peripheral fatigue development and motor unit activation were measured via electrical stimulation and electromyography, respectively, during each test. OCC resulted in significantly greater peripheral fatigue development than CON (54.3 ± 34.8%; P < 0.001). Motor unit deactivation was only observed during OCC (P < 0.001). REP resulted in significant peripheral recovery (P < 0.001) and the re-recruitment of motor units (P < 0.001) to levels not different from CON. While OCC resulted in a significantly greater reduction in force production compared to CON (65.7 ± 35.6%; P < 0.001), REP resulted in the restoration of maximal-effort force production (266 ± 19 N; P < 0.001) to levels not different from CF (276 ± 55 N). These data suggest that CF reflects an oxygen-delivery-dependent balance between motor unit activation and peripheral fatigue development. Furthermore, this study established that mechanisms which determine the total force-producing capacity of exercising skeletal muscle are altered during OCC.

Limb blood flow and muscle oxygenation responses during handgrip exercise above vs. below critical force.

This study compared the brachial artery blood flow (Q̇BA) and microvascular oxygen delivery responses during handgrip exercise above vs. below critical force (CF; the isometric analog of critical power). Q̇BA and microvascular oxygen delivery are important determinants of oxygen utilization and metabolite accumulation during exercise, both of which increase progressively during exercise above CF. However the Q̇BA and microvascular oxygen delivery responses above vs. below CF remain unknown. We hypothesized that Q̇BA, deoxygenated-heme (deoxy-[heme]; an estimate of microvascular fractional oxygen extraction), and total-heme concentrations (total-[heme]; an estimate of changes in microvascular hematocrit) would demonstrate physiological maximums above CF despite increases in exercise intensity. Seven men and six women performed 1) a 5-min rhythmic isometric-handgrip maximal-effort test (MET) to determine CF and 2) two constant target-force tests above (severe-intensity; S1 and S2) and two constant target-force tests below (heavy-intensity; H1 and H2) CF. CF was 189.3 ± 16.7 N (29.7 ± 1.6%MVC). At end-exercise, Q̇BA was greater for tests above CF (S1: 418 ± 147 mL/min; S2: 403 ± 137 mL/min) compared to tests below CF (H1: 287 ± 97 mL/min; H2: 340 ± 116 mL/min; all p < 0.05) but was not different between S1 and S2. Further, end-test Q̇BA during both tests above CF was not different from Q̇BA estimated at CF (392 ± 37 mL/min). At end-exercise, deoxy-[heme] was not different between tests above CF (S1: 150 ± 50 µM; S2: 155 ± 57 µM), but was greater during tests above CF compared to tests below CF (H1: 101 ± 24 µM; H2: 111 ± 21 µM; all p < 0.05). At end-exercise, total-[heme] was not different between tests above CF (S1: 404 ± 58 µM; S2: 397 ± 73 µM), but was greater during tests above CF compared to H1 (352 ± 58 µM; p < 0.01) but not H2 (371 ± 57 µM). These data suggest limb blood flow limitations exist and maximal levels of muscle microvascular oxygen delivery and extraction occur during exercise above, but not below, CF.

Microvascular blood flow during vascular occlusion tests assessed by diffuse correlation spectroscopy.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? What are the characteristics of the time courses of blood flow in the brachial artery and microvascular beds of the skin and skeletal muscle following transient ischaemia? What is the main finding and its importance? Skeletal muscle blood flow was significantly slower than the transient increase in the cutaneous tissue, suggesting mechanistic differences between cutaneous and muscular blood flow distribution after transient ischaemia. These results challenge the use of the cutaneous circulation as globally representative of vascular function. ABSTRACT: Vascular function can be assessed by measuring post-occlusion hyperaemic responses along the arterial tree (vascular occlusion test; VOT). It is currently unclear if responses are similar across vascular beds following cuff release, given potential differences in compliance. To examine this, we compared laser Doppler-derived blood flux in the cutaneous circulation (LDFcut ) and skeletal muscle microvascular blood flux (BFI) using diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS), to brachial artery blood flow (BABF) during VOT. We hypothesized that during a VOT following cuff release, (1) BFI response would be delayed compared to the brachial artery response, and (2) time to peak blood flux in the cutaneous vasculature would be slower than both brachial artery and skeletal muscle responses. Seven healthy men (26 ± 4 years) performed three trials of a brachial artery VOT protocol with 10 min of rest between trials. A combined DCS and near-infrared spectroscopy probe provided BFI and oxygenation characteristics (total-[haem]), respectively, of skeletal muscle. BABF was determined via Doppler ultrasound and microvascular cutaneous blood flux was determined via LDFcut . Following cuff release, time to peak of BFI (32.3 ± 6.0 s) was significantly longer than BABF (7.3 ± 2.5 s), LDFcut (10.0 ± 6.4 s) and total-[haem] (14.2 ± 8.3 s) (all P < 0.001). However, time to peak of BABF, LDFcut and total-[haem] were not significantly different (P > 0.05). These results suggest mechanistic differences in control of cutaneous and muscular blood flow distribution after transient ischaemia.

Prediction of Emergency Capsule Egress Performance.

INTRODUCTION: Critical mission tasks for Martian exploration have been identified and include specific duties that astronauts will have to perform despite any adverse effects of chronic microgravity. Specifically, astronauts may have to perform an emergency capsule egress upon return to Earth, which places specific demands on compromised cardiovascular and neuromuscular systems. Therefore, the purpose of this project was to determine the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and simulated capsule egress time.METHODS: There were 15 subjects who volunteered for this study. Vo2peak and peak power output (PPO) were determined on cycle and rowing ergometers. Critical power (CP) was determined by a 3-min all-out rowing test. Subjects then performed an emergency capsule egress on a mock-up of NASA's Orion space capsule. Peak metabolic data were compared between the cycling and rowing tests. Pearson's correlation was used to identify relationships between egress time and Vo2peak, PPO, and CP.RESULTS: Vo2peak, Vco2peak, and minute ventilation were not different between cycling and rowing tests. Cycling elicited a greater PPO than the rowing test. Egress time was negatively correlated to rowing PPO (r = -0.60), but not cycling or rowing Vo2peak, cycling PPO, or CP.CONCLUSIONS: Rowing PPO/kg correlates with egress time. Although individuals with higher PPO/kg were able to finish the task in less time, individuals with low fitness levels (Vo2peak ≤ 20 ml · kg-1 · min-1) could complete the egress within 2 mins. These results suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness should not limit emergency egress and that this can be assessed using rowing exercise.Alexander AM, Sutterfield SL, Kriss KN, Hammer SM, Didier KD, Cauldwell JT, Dzewaltowski AC, Barstow TJ, Ade CJ. Prediction of emergency capsule egress performance. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2019; 90(9):782-787.

Effect of assuming constant tissue scattering on measured tissue oxygenation values during tissue ischemia and vascular reperfusion.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of assuming constant tissue scattering properties on tissue oxygenation measurements during a vascular occlusion test (VOT). Twenty-one subjects (21.8 ± 1.9 yr) completed a VOT [1 min baseline (BL), 5 min of tissue ischemia (TI), and 3 min of vascular reperfusion (VR)]. Absolute concentrations of oxygenated heme (oxy-[heme]), deoxygenated heme (deoxy-[heme]), total heme (total [heme), tissue oxygen saturation (StO2), and heme difference [heme]diff) were measured using frequency domain near-infrared spectroscopy (FD-NIRS) while 1) continuously measuring and incorporating tissue scattering ([Formula: see text]) and 2) assuming scattering remained constant. FD-NIRS measured [Formula: see text] increased during TI at 692 nm (P < 0.001) and decreased at 834 nm (P < 0.001). During VR, [Formula: see text] decreased at 692 nm (P < 0.001) and increased at 834 nm (P < 0.001). When assuming constant scattering, oxy-[heme] was significantly less at TIpeak (P < 0.05) while deoxy-[heme] and StO2 were significantly altered at BL, TIpeak, and VRpeak (all P < 0.001). Total [heme] did not change during the VOT. Absolute changes in deoxy-[heme], oxy-[heme], and StO2 in response to TI and VR were significantly exaggerated (all P < 0.001) and the rates of change during TI (slope 1) and VR (slope 2) in deoxy-[heme], oxy-[heme], StO2, and [heme]diff were significantly increased (all P < 0.05) when constant tissue scattering was assumed. These findings demonstrate the need for caution when interpreting NIRS data without continuously measuring tissue optical properties. Further, assuming tissue optical properties remain constant may have important consequences to experimental data and clinical conclusions made using NIRS.NEW & NOTEWORTHY NIRS measurements provide significant experimental and clinical insight. We demonstrate that absolute changes in tissue oxygenation measurements made with NIRS are overestimated and the kinetic responses of NIRS measurements are exaggerated by varying degrees among individuals if tissue scattering characteristics are assumed to remain constant during vascular occlusion tests.

Prediction of Planetary Mission Task Performance for Long-Duration Spaceflight.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to determine values and ranges for key aerobic fitness variables that can individually map the level of success for planetary mission tasks performance for long-duration spaceflight, with the goal to develop a predictor-testing model that can be performed with in-flight equipment. METHODS: We studied a group of 45 men and women who completed a series of mission-critical tasks: a surface traverse task and a hill climb task. Participants performed each mission task at a low and moderate intensity designed to elicit specific metabolic responses similar to what is expected for ambulation in lunar and Martian gravities, respectively. Aerobic fitness was characterized via cycling and rowing V˙O2peak, ventilatory threshold (VT), and critical power. Logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis were used to determine the cutoff thresholds for each aerobic fitness parameter that accurately predicted task performance. RESULTS: The participants of this study were characterized by a range of cycling V˙O2peak from 15.5 to 54.1 mL·kg·min. A V˙O2peak optimal cutoff values of X and Y mL·kg·min were identified for the low- and moderate-intensity surface traverse tasks, respectively. For the low- and moderate-intensity hill climb test, the optimal V˙O2peak cutoff values were X and Y mL·kg·min, respectively. VT and critical power also showed high sensitivity and specificity for identifying individuals who could not complete the mission tasks. CONCLUSION: In summary, we identified aerobic fitness thresholds below which task performance was impaired for both low- and moderate-intensity mission-critical tasks. In particular, cycling V˙O2peak, VT, and rowing CP could each be used to predict task failure.

Exercise tolerance through severe and extreme intensity domains.

The power-duration relationship accurately predicts exercise tolerance for constant power exercise performed in the severe intensity domain. However, the accuracy of the prediction of time to task failure (Tlim ) is currently unclear for work rates (WR) above severe intensities; that is, within the extreme intensity domain (Tlim  < 2 min). We hypothesized that Tlim would be shorter for WRs within the extreme intensity domain than predicted from the linear 1/time relationship of the severe intensity domain which would suggest mechanisms limiting exercise are different between intensity domains. Six men completed 7 knee-extension tests. Tlim of extreme intensity exercise (60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% 1RM; Tlim  < 2 min) were compared to the predicted Tlim from the slope of the S1-S3 (Tlim  ≥ 2-15 min) regression. Twitch force (Qtw ) and maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) were measured on the right vastus lateralis before and after each test. Tlim at 70-90% 1RM were shorter than the Tlim predicted by the severe domain 1/time model (P < 0.05); however, Tlim at 60% 1RM was not different than the predicted severe Tlim , suggesting the mechanisms limiting extreme exercise manifest ≥60% 1RM. A significant linear relationship for 60-90% 1RM was observed which suggested a curvature constant unique to the extreme domain ( Wext' ) that was smaller than the W ' of the severe domain (1.5 ± 0.6 vs. 5.9 ± 1.5 kJ, P < 0.001). Qtw and MVC were significantly decreased following severe exercise, however, Qtw and MVC were not significantly decreased following 80% and 90% 1RM, giving evidence that mechanisms causing task failure were recovered by the time post-exercise measurements were made (~90 sec).

The noninvasive simultaneous measurement of tissue oxygenation and microvascular hemodynamics during incremental handgrip exercise.

Limb blood flow increases linearly with exercise intensity; however, invasive measurements of muscle microvascular blood flow during incremental exercise have demonstrated submaximal plateaus. We tested the hypotheses that 1) brachial artery blood flow (Q̇BA) would increase with increasing exercise intensity until task failure, 2) blood flow index of the flexor digitorum superficialis (BFIFDS) measured noninvasively via diffuse correlation spectroscopy would plateau at a submaximal work rate, and 3) muscle oxygenation characteristics (total-[heme], deoxy-[heme], and percentage saturation) measured noninvasively with near-infrared spectroscopy would demonstrate a plateau at a similar work rate as BFIFDS. Sixteen subjects (23.3 ± 3.9 yr, 170.8 ± 1.9 cm, 72.8 ± 3.4 kg) participated in this study. Peak power (Ppeak) was determined for each subject (1.8 ± 0.4 W) via an incremental handgrip exercise test. Q̇BA, BFIFDS, total-[heme], deoxy-[heme], and percentage saturation were measured during each stage of the exercise test. On a subsequent testing day, muscle activation measurements of the FDS (RMSFDS) were collected during each stage of an identical incremental handgrip exercise test via electromyography from a subset of subjects ( n = 7). Q̇BA increased with exercise intensity until the final work rate transition ( P < 0.05). No increases in BFIFDS or muscle oxygenation characteristics were observed at exercise intensities greater than 51.5 ± 22.9% of Ppeak. No submaximal plateau in RMSFDS was observed. Whereas muscle activation of the FDS increased until task failure, noninvasively measured indices of perfusive and diffusive muscle microvascular oxygen delivery demonstrated submaximal plateaus. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Invasive measurements of muscle microvascular blood flow during incremental exercise have demonstrated submaximal plateaus. We demonstrate that indices of perfusive and diffusive microvascular oxygen transport to skeletal muscle, measured completely noninvasively, plateau at submaximal work rates during incremental exercise, even though limb blood flow and muscle recruitment continued to increase.

Effect of cyclooxygenase inhibition on the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex-induced cardiovascular consequences in men.

Inspiratory muscle metaboreflex activation increases mean arterial pressure (MAP) and limb vascular resistance (LVR) and decreases limb blood flow (Q̇L). Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition has been found to attenuate limb skeletal muscle metaboreflex-induced increases in muscle sympathetic nerve activity. We hypothesized that compared with placebo (PLA), COX inhibition would attenuate inspiratory muscle metaboreflex-induced 1) increases in MAP and LVR and 2) decreases in Q̇L Seven men (22 ± 1 yr) were recruited and orally consumed ibuprofen (IB; 10 mg/kg) or PLA 90 min before performing the cold pressor test (CPT) for 2 min and inspiratory resistive breathing task (IRBT) for 14.9 ± 2.0 min at 65% of maximal inspiratory pressure. Breathing frequency was 20 breaths/min with a 50% duty cycle during the IRBTs. MAP was measured via automated oscillometry, Q̇L was determined via Doppler ultrasound, and LVR was calculated as MAP divided by Q̇L Electromyography was recorded on the leg to ensure no muscle contraction occurred. The 65% IRBT led to greater increases (P = 0.02) in 6-keto-prostaglandin-F1α with PLA compared with IB. IB, compared with PLA, led to greater (P < 0.01) increases in MAP (IB: 17 ± 7 mmHg vs. PLA: 8 ± 5 mmHg) and LVR (IB: 69 ± 28% vs. PLA: 52 ± 22%) at the final minute of the 65% IRBT. The decrease in Q̇L was not different (P = 0.72) between IB (-28 ± 11%) and PLA (-27 ± 9%) at the final minute. The increase in MAP during the CPT was not different (P = 0.87) between IB (25 ± 11 mmHg) and PLA (24 ± 6 mmHg). Contrary to our hypotheses, COX inhibition led to greater inspiratory muscle metaboreflex-induced increases in MAP and LVR.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cyclooxygenase (COX) products play a role in activating the muscle metaboreflex. It is not known whether COX products contribute to the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex. Herein, we demonstrate that COX inhibition led to greater increases in blood pressure and limb vascular resistance compared with placebo during inspiratory muscle metaboreflex activation.

Cardiovascular consequences of the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex: effects of age and sex.

With inspiratory muscle metaboreflex activation, we hypothesized that, compared with their younger counterparts, older men and women would exhibit greater 1) increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and limb vascular resistance (LVR) and 2) decreases in limb blood flow (Q̇L) but 3) no sex differences would be present in older adults. Sixteen young adults [8 young men (YM) and 8 young women (YW), 18-24 yr] and 16 older adults [8 older men (OM) and 8 older women (OW), 60-73 yr] performed inspiratory resistive breathing tasks (IRBTs) at 2% and 65% of their maximal inspiratory pressure. During the IRBTs, breathing frequency was 20 breaths/min with a 50% duty cycle. At baseline and during the IRBTs, MAP was measured via automated oscillometry, Q̇L was determined via Doppler ultrasound, and LVR was calculated. The 65% IRBT led to significantly greater increases in MAP in OW (15.9 ± 8.1 mmHg) compared with YW (6.9 ± 1.4 mmHg) but not (P > 0.05) between OM (12.3 ± 5.7 mmHg) and YM (10.8 ± 5.7 mmHg). OW (-20.2 ± 7.2%) had greater (P < 0.05) decreases in Q̇L compared with YW (-9.4 ± 10.2%), but no significant differences were present between OM (-22.8 ± 9.7%) and YM (-22.7 ± 11.3%) during the 65% IRBT. The 65% IRBT led to greater (P < 0.05) increases in LVR in OW (48.2 ± 25.5%) compared with YW (19.7 ± 15.0%), but no differences (P > 0.05) existed among OM (54.4 ± 17.8%) and YM (47.1 ± 23.3%). No significant differences were present in MAP, Q̇L, or LVR between OM and OW. These data suggest that OW exhibit a greater inspiratory muscle metaboreflex compared with YW, whereas no differences between OM and YM existed. Finally, sex differences in the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex are not present in older adults.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Premenopausal women exhibit an attenuated inspiratory muscle metaboreflex compared with young men; however, it is unknown whether these sex differences are present in older adults. Older women exhibited a greater inspiratory muscle metaboreflex compared with premenopausal women, whereas no differences were present between older and younger men.

Sex differences in the cardiovascular consequences of the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex.

It is currently unknown whether sex differences exist in the cardiovascular consequences of the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex. We hypothesized that the activation of the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex will lead to less of an increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and limb vascular resistance (LVR) and less of a decrease in limb blood flow (Q̇L) in women compared with men. Twenty healthy men (n = 10, 23 ± 2 yr) and women (n = 10, 22 ± 3 yr) were recruited for this study. Subjects performed inspiratory resistive breathing tasks (IRBTs) at 2% or 65% of their maximal inspiratory mouth pressure (PIMAX). During the IRBTs, the breathing frequency was 20 breaths/min with a 50% duty cycle. At rest and during the IRBTs, MAP was measured via automated oscillometry, Q̇L was measured via Doppler ultrasound, and LVR was calculated. EMG was recorded on the leg to ensure no muscle contraction occurred. The 65% IRBT led to attenuated increases (P < 0.01) from baseline in women compared with men for MAP (W: 7.3 ± 2.0 mmHg; M: 11.1 ± 5.0 mmHg) and LVR (W: 17.7% ± 14.0%; M: 47.9 ± 21.0%), as well as less of a decrease (P < 0.01) in Q̇L (W: -7.5 ± 9.9%; M: -23.3 ± 10.2%). These sex differences in MAP, Q̇L, and LVR were still present in a subset of subjects matched for PIMAX The 2% IRBT resulted in no significant changes in MAP, Q̇L, or LVR across time or between men and women. These data indicate premenopausal women exhibit an attenuated inspiratory muscle metaboreflex compared with age-matched men.