Economic impact assessment of foot-and-mouth disease burden and control in pastoral local dairy cattle production systems in Northern Nigeria: A cross-sectional survey.

Milk has been envisaged as a major source of high-quality protein and bioavailable nutrients to humans. Its production is constraint by foot and mouth disease (FMD), a contagious viral disease of very high economic importance worldwide. This study was aimed at assessing the economic impact of FMD in pastoral dairy cattle herds in Nigeria and determines returns to investments in its control to better inform policy decisions. An interview questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted in 660 nomadic and agro-pastoral dairy cattle herds in 2019. Economic impact analyses were conducted using the total economic cost and benefit-cost analysis models. Of the 660 pastoralists enrolled, 92.6% (n = 611) participated. Nomadic pastoralists constituted 50.7% (n = 310) of the respondents while 49.3% (n = 301) were agro-pastoralists. Most of the respondents (66.4%, n = 406) had no formal education. The value of visible losses to the herders was estimated at USD 15,591,694.30 and the cost of control by treatment of secondary infections was USD 463,673.70. The economic impact of FMD due to production losses and costs of treatment to pastoralists was estimated to be USD 16,055,368.00. Return on investment in FMD control was positive with a benefit-cost ratio of 33.6. The estimated total economic costs due to FMD have indicated that it is a disease of high economic importance to dairy production herds and must be controlled to assure food security, local incomes to herders, and protein requirement of human population, especially the children in FMD endemic countries.

Antimicrobials usage assessments in commercial poultry and local birds in North-central Nigeria: Associated pathways and factors for resistance emergence and spread.

The World Health Organization's Global Action Plan on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) recommended monitoring of antimicrobial use (AMU) through surveillance and research to help mitigate AMR. This survey was aimed at assessing poultry owners' knowledge/awareness and practices regarding AMU, identified pathways for AMR emergence and spread in small-scale commercial poultry farms and free-range local bird flocks in North-central Nigeria. An interview questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted on commercial poultry farmers and local bird flock keepers in 2017. Also, a Traffic Light system model was used assess risk status of AMU in farms and flocks. All the 384 recruited poultry farmers/keepers participated in the survey. Female respondents were the majority (67.2%). Low proportion of poultry farmers (46.4%, 89/192) and very low proportion of bird keepers (6.8%, 13/192) knew antimicrobials misuse to be when administered under dose. About 48% (93/192) of farmers and 93% (179/192) of keepers arbitrary determined antimicrobial dosage before administration. Respondents used antimicrobials for therapeutic, prophylactic, and growth promotion in birds. Also, participants significantly identified contaminated poultry products, infected poultry or contaminated formites, and discharged contaminated faeces into environment as pathways for transmission of antimicrobial resistant pathogens to humans. Traffic Light system model revealed 88.5% of small-scale commercial poultry farms to frequently used antimicrobials without veterinarians' consultations thereby attaining Class 1 (Red risk) status. The model showed that 92.1% of free-range local bird flocks rarely used antimicrobials thereby attaining Class 3 (Green risk) status. Improper antimicrobial dosage in poultry (OR: 7.23; 95% CI: 2.74, 19.21), non-enforcement of AMU regulating laws in poultry (OR: 4.12; 95% CI: 2.39, 7.10), weak financial status of poultry owners (OR: 3.00; 95% CI: 2.39, 7.10), and management system (OR: 8.94; 95% CI: 5.62, 14.24) were more likely to satisfactorily influenced antimicrobials misuse in poultry farms and local bird flocks. The survey revealed low knowledge level regarding AMU in the poultry. Antimicrobials were rarely used in local bird flocks, making them likely organic and safe from AMR. It is imperative to educate farmers on judicious AMU, enforce existing veterinary legislation on antimicrobials, establish antimicrobials surveillance system, and sensitize farmers on adequate biosecurity measures and routine vaccination of farms, so as to assure food safety, food security, and public health.

Knowledge, risk perception and mitigation measures towards Ebola virus disease by potentially exposed bushmeat handlers in north-central Nigeria: Any critical gap?

The bushmeat industry has been a topic of increasing importance among public health officials for its influence on zoonotic diseases transmission, such as Ebola virus disease (EVD), a rare and severe infectious disease of humans and non-human primates. This survey assessed knowledge/awareness, risk perceptions and mitigation practices towards EVD among bushmeat handlers in north-central Nigeria. These characteristics are premise to level of preparedness against appropriate risk prevention and control. A questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted between January and December 2015 on 395 bushmeat handlers. Descriptive and analytical statistical analyses were performed using Epi-Info 3.5.3 software, and p < 0.05 was considered statistical significance in all analyses. Mean age of respondents was 40.9 ± 10.7 years, and most (30.4%) of them were in the age group 40-49 years. Majority (82.8%) of them were males, while most (47.9%) do not possess formal education. Bushmeat hunters, vendors and consumers constituted 17.2%, 28.1% and 54.7% of the respondents, respectively. A majority (85.6%) of the participants had heard about EVD. Bushmeat vendors were more likely (OR 1.96; 95% CI: 1.05-3.65) to have satisfactory knowledge than the hunters. Handlers with tertiary education were more likely (OR 3.22; 95% CI: 1.56-6.67) to possess significant satisfactory knowledge/awareness about EVD. Also, vendors were more likely (OR 1.85; 95% CI: 1.01-3.42) to practice satisfactory mitigation measures than the hunters. Only handlers with tertiary education were more likely (OR 2.48; 95% CI: 1.26-4.89) to significantly practice satisfactory mitigation measures against EVD. Although most of the handlers possessed significant knowledge/awareness about EVD, few applied mitigation measures against its infection, which is the challenging gap. There is a need for collaborations between the public health, veterinary and wildlife authorities in the provision of health information to bushmeat handlers on better management of emerging and re-emerging zoonotic viral diseases of wildlife origin.

Qualitative and quantitative impacts assessment of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in Fulani pastoral herds of North-central Nigeria: The associated socio-cultural factors.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia is one of the most important trans-boundary disease affecting Fulani cattle herds of Nigeria and whose control is urgently needed. A Participatory Epidemiology approach and cross-sectional study were concurrently conducted to investigate qualitative and quantitative impacts of CBPP, respectively and associated socio-cultural factors that influenced exposure of Fulani nomadic pastoral communities to its risk in Niger State, North-central Nigeria between January and December 2013. A total of nine pastoral communities were purposively selected for qualitative impact assessment using Participatory Rural Appraisal tools, while 765 cattle randomly sampled from 125 purposively selected nomadic herds were analyzed using c-ELISA. Data on socio-cultural characteristics were collected using structured questionnaires administered on nomadic herd owners of the 125 selected herds. Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance W statistics and OpenEpi 2.3 were used for statistical analyses. Pastoralists' dependent factors associated with their socio-cultural activities were tested using Chisquare tests and likelihood backward logistic regressions. The mean proportional piles (relative qualitative impact) of CBPP was 12.6%, and nomads agreement on this impact was strong (W=0.6855) and statistically significant (P<0.001). This was validated by 16.2% (95% CI: 13.7, 19.0) sero-positive (quantitative impact). Highest sero-prevalence of 25.3% was observed in Northern agro-ecological zone, while lowest of 6.2% was in Eastern zone. Pastoralists in the age groups 51-60 and 61-70 years were more likely (OR 13.07; 95% CI: 3.21, 53.12 and OR 7.10; 95% CI: 1.77, 28.33, respectively) to have satisfactory information/awareness on CBPP and lowland transhumance pastoralists were more likely (OR 5.21; 95% CI: 2.01, 13.54) to have satisfactory information. Socio-cultural activities of extensive husbandry system was six times more likely (OR 5.79; 95% CI: 2.55, 13.13) to be satisfactory practice that influenced CBPP occurrence in herds, while culture of borrowing and loaning of cattle was twenty times more likely (OR 19.94; 95% CI: 6.36, 62.48) to be satisfactory practice that influenced CBPP occurrence in herds. Also, sharing a water source that caused concentration of stocks in one point was fifty three times more likely (OR 53.08; 95% CI: 14.91, 189.00) to be satisfactory practice that influenced occurrence of the disease in herds. This study highlighted the critical gap that exists in terms of significant influence of socio-cultural factors on CBPP occurrence in pastoral herds in Nigeria. Thus, CBPP surveillance, control and prevention programs that take these factors into consideration will be beneficial to the livestock industry in Nigeria, and indeed Africa.

Influence of Pastoralists' Sociocultural Activities on Tsetse-Trypanosome-Cattle Reservoir Interface: The Risk of Human African Trypanosomiasis in North-Central Nigeria.

The study investigated socio-cultural characteristics of pastoralists that influenced on the tsetse-trypanosome-cattle reservoir interface thereby predisposing them to HAT in Niger State, North-central Nigeria. It was a cross-sectional survey of adult pastoral herders, aged 30 years and above, and conducted between October 2012 and February 2013. A face-to-face structured questionnaire was administered on the pastoralists nested in 96 cattle herds with questions focused on pastoralists' socio-cultural activities and behavioral practices related to HAT risk. Descriptive and analytic statistics were used to describe the obtained data. A total of 384 pastoralists participated, with mean age of 49.6  ± 10.76 SD years. Male respondents constituted 86.7% of gender, while pastoralists of age group 40-49 years constituted 35.4% of respondents. About 59.4% of the pastoralists had knowledge about HAT and its symptoms and only 33.9% of them believed that cattle served as reservoir of HAT trypanosome. Knowledge/belief levels of the pastoralists about African trypanosomiasis occurrence in humans and animals were statistically significant. Males were four times more likely to be exposed to HAT (OR = 3.67; 95% CI: 1.42, 9.52); age group 60-69 was also four times more likely to be exposed (OR = 3.59; 95% CI: 1.56, 8.28); and nomadic pastoralists were two times more likely to be exposed to HAT (OR = 2.07; 95% CI: 1.37, 3.14). All cultural practices significantly influenced exposure to HAT with extensive husbandry system three times more likely to predisposed pastoralists to HAT (OR = 3.21; 95% CI: 1.65, 6.24). Socio-cultural characteristics of pastoralists influenced exposure to HAT risk and, therefore, there is a need to sensitize them to bring changes to their socio-cultural practices and perceptions to achieve effective and long term sustainable HAT control. Elimination strategies of parasites in animals and vectors should be considered to avoid reintroduction from animal reservoirs.

Serological survey of bovine brucellosis in Fulani nomadic cattle breeds (Bos indicus) of North-central Nigeria: Potential risk factors and zoonotic implications.

A cross sectional study was conducted to investigate seroprevalence and associated risk factors of bovine brucellosis in Fulani nomadic herds in the 3 agro-ecological zones of Niger State, North-central Nigeria between January and August 2013. A total of 672 cattle in 113 herds were screened for Brucella antibodies using Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and confirmed by Lateral flow Assay (LFA). Data on herd characteristics and zoonotic factors were collected using structured questionnaire administered on Fulani herd owners. Factors associated with Brucella infection were tested using Chi-square test and multivariable logistic model. The overall cattle-level seroprevalence was 1.9% (95% CI: 1.1-3.2) with highest in agro-zone C (3.2%). Herd-level seroprevalence was 9.7% (95% CI: 5.23-16.29) and highest in agro-zone C (13.5%). Sex and agro-ecological zones were significantly (P<0.006 and P<0.01, respectively) associated with Brucella abortus seropositivity. Herd composition, abortion in herd, exchange of bulls for mating, introduction of new cattle, and socio-cultural practices were significantly associated with brucellosis occurrence. Inhalation of droplets from milk of infected cows, and drinking raw milk were less likely [OR 0.27; 95% CI: 0.09-0.82 and OR 0.27; 95% CI: 0.08-0.99, respectively] not to predisposed to brucellosis in humans. Eating infected raw meat, and contact with infected placenta were more likely [OR 7.49; 95% CI: 2.06-28.32 and OR 5.74; 95% CI: 1.78-18.47, respectively] to be risks for the disease in humans. These results highlighted the important risk factors for bovine brucellosis in Fulani herds. Thus, brucellosis control programs which take these factors into consideration will be beneficial.

Participatory Epidemiology of Ethnoveterinary Practices Fulani Pastoralists Used to Manage Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia and Other Cattle Ailments in Niger State, Nigeria.

Ethnoveterinary practices are locally available and affordable to Fulani pastoralists in Niger State, Nigeria, to whom conventional veterinary services are often not readily available and are relatively expensive. This study was designed to identify and document medicinal plant and nonplant materials used by this group in the management of cattle diseases. Participatory rural appraisal tools of checklist, semistructured interview, probing, transect, and triangulations were used to assess Fulani pastoralists existing knowledge on traditional veterinary practices in nine pastoral communities spread across the state. Fifty medicinal materials and seven traditional preventive practices are in use against CBPP and other cattle disease conditions. Of these, 38 (76.0%) are medicinal plants and 12 (24.0%) are nonplant materials (edible earth materials and minerals). Family Fabaceae was most commonly mentioned while leaves were the most common parts used. Most of these materials are administered by drenching with few others mixed with feed. Proportions of plant parts used include leaves (47.4%), barks (31.6%), roots (10.6%), and 2.6% of each of rhizomes, fruits, seeds, and whole plants. Of recently used ingredients are kerosene and spent engine oil. Further research into the active ingredients of ethnoveterinary materials and dosages is necessary to guide their usage.

Assessment of biosecurity measures against highly pathogenic avian influenza risks in small-scale commercial farms and free-range poultry flocks in the northcentral Nigeria.

There is considerable global concern over the emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) that has affected domestic poultry flocks in Nigeria and other parts of the world. There have been little investigations on the proposition that free-range flocks are potentially at higher risk of HPAI than confined small-scale commercial enterprises. The objective is to analyse the biosecurity measures instituted in the small-scale commercial poultry farms and established free-range bird flocks owned by households in the rural areas and qualitatively assess the risk status at the two levels of poultry management systems in northcentral Nigeria. We used data collected through questionnaire administration to farms and flock owners and subjected them to a traffic light system model to test for relative risks of HPAI infection based on the biosecurity measures put in place at the farm and flock levels. The results indicate that free-range flocks are at lower risk compared to small-scale commercial operations. These findings are plausible as birds from free-range flocks have more opportunities to contact wild bird reservoirs of low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) strains than small-scale commercial poultry, thus providing them with constant challenge and maintenance of flock immunity. The development of efficient and effective biosecurity measures against poultry diseases on small-scale commercial farms requires adequate placement of barriers to provide segregation, cleaning and disinfection, while concerted community-led sanitary measures are required for free-range poultry flocks in the developing topical and subtropical economies.