ABSTRACT
The notion that plasma cells (PCs) are terminally differentiated has prevented intensive research in multiple myeloma (MM) about their phenotypic plasticity and differentiation. Here, we demonstrated in healthy individuals (n=20) that the CD19-CD81 expression axis identifies three bone marrow (BM)PC subsets with distinct age-prevalence, proliferation, replication-history, immunoglobulin-production, and phenotype, consistent with progressively increased differentiation from CD19+CD81+ into CD19-CD81+ and CD19-CD81- BMPCs. Afterwards, we demonstrated in 225 newly diagnosed MM patients that, comparing to normal BMPC counterparts, 59% had fully differentiated (CD19-CD81-) clones, 38% intermediate-differentiated (CD19-CD81+) and 3% less-differentiated (CD19+CD81+) clones. The latter patients had dismal outcome, and PC differentiation emerged as an independent prognostic marker for progression-free (HR: 1.7; P=0.005) and overall survival (HR: 2.1; P=0.006). Longitudinal comparison of diagnostic vs minimal-residual-disease samples (n=40) unraveled that in 20% of patients, less-differentiated PCs subclones become enriched after therapy-induced pressure. We also revealed that CD81 expression is epigenetically regulated, that less-differentiated clonal PCs retain high expression of genes related to preceding B-cell stages (for example: PAX5), and show distinct mutation profile vs fully differentiated PC clones within individual patients. Together, we shed new light into PC plasticity and demonstrated that MM patients harbouring less-differentiated PCs have dismal survival, which might be related to higher chemoresistant potential plus different molecular and genomic profiles.
Subject(s)
Multiple Myeloma/diagnosis , Multiple Myeloma/metabolism , Plasma Cells/metabolism , Plasma Cells/pathology , Adult , Antigens, CD/metabolism , Biomarkers , Bone Marrow/metabolism , Bone Marrow/pathology , Bone Marrow Cells/metabolism , Bone Marrow Cells/pathology , Case-Control Studies , Cell Cycle , DNA Methylation , Female , Gene Expression Profiling , Genetic Heterogeneity , High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing , Humans , Immunophenotyping , In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence , Male , Middle Aged , Multiple Myeloma/genetics , Multiple Myeloma/mortality , Mutation , Neoplasm Grading , Phenotype , Prognosis , Single-Cell Analysis , Young AdultSubject(s)
B-Lymphocytes/immunology , Palatine Tonsil/immunology , Palatine Tonsil/microbiology , Tonsillitis/immunology , Tonsillitis/microbiology , Adenoidectomy , Adolescent , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Flow Cytometry , Humans , Immunity, Mucosal , Immunophenotyping , Male , Palatine Tonsil/surgery , Principal Component Analysis , Tonsillectomy , Tonsillitis/surgery , Young AdultABSTRACT
Allergen-specific immunotherapy (IT) is the only treatment of allergy in adults and children capable of modifying the immune response at early steps. As a consequence, IT improves symptoms, prevents the onset of new sensitizations, reduces the risk of developing asthma and its clinical efficacy lasts many years. The main rationale for administering sublingually IT (SLIT) is to reduce the occurrence of side effects, still yet preserving the immunological effects. SLIT with the most common allergens have been used in many studies with significant clinical effectiveness in both asthma and rhinitis. The pharmacokinetic of allergens administered through non injection routes is complex. Peptide absorption across oral mucosa occurs mainly by passive diffusion but delivery of proteins has some limitations. Moreover, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the efficacy of SLIT are poorly defined. In this review we focus on the anatomy/histology of the oral cavity as well as on the associated immunological structures to envisage what may happen when an allergen is kept in the mouth. Moreover, the induction of immune responses in this particular immunological environment is also discussed.
