Development of an age-dependent cognitive index: relationship between impaired learning and disturbances in circadian timekeeping.

Preclinical quantitative models of cognitive performance are necessary for translation from basic research to clinical studies. In rodents, non-cognitive factors are a potential influence on testing outcome and high variability in behavior requires multiple time point testing for better assessment of performance in more sophisticated tests. Thus, these models have limited translational value as most human cognitive tests characterize cognition using single digit scales to distinguish between impaired and unimpaired function. To address these limitations, we developed a cognitive index for learning based on previously described scores for strategies used by mice to escape the Barnes maze. We compared the cognitive index and circadian patterns of light-dark entrainment in young (4-6 months), middle-aged (13-14 months), and aged (18-24 months) mice as cognitive changes during aging are often accompanied by pronounced changes in sleep-wake cycle. Following continuous analysis of circadian wheel-running activity (30-40 days), the same cohorts of mice were tested in the Barnes maze. Aged mice showed significant deficits in the learning and memory portions of the Barnes maze relative to young and middle-aged animals, and the cognitive index was positively correlated to the memory portion of the task (probe) in all groups. Significant age-related alterations in circadian entrainment of the activity rhythm were observed in the middle-aged and aged cohorts. In middle-aged mice, the delayed phase angle of entrainment and increased variability in the daily onsets of activity preceded learning and memory deficits observed in aged animals. Interestingly, learning-impaired mice were distinguished by a positive relationship between the extent of Barnes-related cognitive impairment and variability in daily onsets of circadian activity. While it is unclear whether changes in the sleep-wake cycle or other circadian rhythms play a role in cognitive impairment during aging, our results suggest that circadian rhythm perturbations or misalignment may nevertheless provide an early predictor of age-related cognitive decline.

Generation of myometrium-specific Bmal1 knockout mice for parturition analysis.

Human and rodent studies indicate a role for circadian rhythmicity and associated clock gene expression in supporting normal parturition. The importance of clock gene expression in tissues besides the suprachiasmatic nucleus is emerging. Here, a Bmal1 conditional knockout mouse line and a novel Cre transgenic mouse line were used to examine the role of myometrial Bmal1 in parturition. Ninety-two percent (22/24) of control females but only 64% (14/22) of females with disrupted myometrial Bmal1 completed parturition during the expected time window of 5p.m. on Day 19 through to 9a.m. on Day 19.5 of gestation. However, neither serum progesterone levels nor uterine transcript expression of the contractile-associated proteins Connexin43 and Oxytocin receptor differed between females with disrupted myometrial Bmal1 and controls during late gestation. The data indicate a role for myometrial Bmal1 in maintaining normal time of day of parturition.

Immortalized cell lines for real-time analysis of circadian pacemaker and peripheral oscillator properties.

In the mammalian circadian system, cell-autonomous clocks in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) are distinguished from those in other brain regions and peripheral tissues by the capacity to generate coordinated rhythms and drive oscillations in other cells. To further establish in vitro models for distinguishing the functional properties of SCN and peripheral oscillators, we developed immortalized cell lines derived from fibroblasts and the SCN anlage of mPer2 (Luc) knockin mice. Circadian rhythms in luminescence driven by the mPER2::LUC fusion protein were observed in cultures of mPer2 (Luc) SCN cells and in serum-shocked or SCN2.2-co-cultured mPer2 (Luc) fibroblasts. SCN mPer2 (Luc) cells generated self-sustained circadian oscillations that persisted for at least four cycles with periodicities of ≈24 h. Immortalized fibroblasts only showed circadian rhythms of mPER2::LUC expression in response to serum shock or when co-cultured with SCN2.2 cells. Circadian oscillations of luminescence in mPer2 (Luc) fibroblasts decayed after 3-4 cycles in serum-shocked cultures but robustly persisted for 6-7 cycles in the presence of SCN2.2 cells. In the co-culture model, the circadian behavior of mPer2 (Luc) fibroblasts was dependent on the integrity of the molecular clockworks in co-cultured SCN cells as persistent rhythmicity was not observed in the presence of immortalized SCN cells derived from mice with targeted disruption of Per1 and Per2 (Per1(ldc) /Per2 (ldc) ). Because immortalized mPer2 (Luc) SCN cells and fibroblasts retain their indigenous circadian properties, these in vitro models will be valuable for real-time comparisons of clock gene rhythms in SCN and peripheral oscillators and identifying the diffusible signals that mediate the distinctive pacemaking function of the SCN.

Anatomical characterization of cytoglobin and neuroglobin mRNA and protein expression in the mouse brain.

The present study aimed at characterizing the anatomical and subcellular localization of cytoglobin (Cygb) and neuroglobin (Ngb) in the mouse brain by use of in situ hybridisation, immunohistochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy. Cygb and Ngb were only found in distinct brain areas and often in the same areas. We found intense staining in the piriform cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus (medial preoptic area, supra chiasmatic nucleus, lateral hypothalamus (LH), ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus, and the arcuate nucleus, habenular nuclei, laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDTg), pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg), locus coeruleus, nucleus of the solitary tract and the spinal trigeminal nucleus. In addition Cygb is found in the hippocampus, the reticular thalamic nucleus, and the dorsal raphe nucleus; Ngb is found in the sub parabrachial nucleus. Co-localization of Cygb and Ngb is mainly observed in the LDTg and PPTg. Cygb and Ngb were found in cytoplasm, along neurotubuli, in mitochondria and in the nucleus by use of immunoelectron microscopy. Most neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)-positive neurons were found to co-localize Cygb, although not all nNOS neurones contain Cygb. Ngb co-localize with almost all orexin neurons in the LH. In conclusion the distribution of Cygb and Ngb seems much more restricted and coherent than previously reported. We believe other functions than pure oxygen buffers and neuroprotectants should be considered. The anatomical data indicate a role in NO signalling for Cygb and involvement in sleep-wake cycling for Cygb and Ngb.

Effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on vasoactive intestinal polypeptide neurons in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus.

Neonatal alcohol exposure produces long-term changes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) that are presumably responsible for disturbances in the light-dark regulation of circadian behavior in adult rats, including the pattern of photoentrainment, rate of re-entrainment to shifted light-dark cycles, and phase-shifting responses to light. Because SCN neurons containing vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) receive direct photic input via the retinohypothalamic tract and thus play an important role in the circadian regulation of the SCN clock mechanism by light, the present study examined the long-term effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on VIP neuronal populations within the SCN of adult rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rat pups were exposed to alcohol (EtOH; 3.0, 4.5, or 6.0 g/kg/day) or isocaloric milk formula (gastrostomy control; GC) on postnatal days 4-9 using artificial-rearing methods. At 2-3 months of age, animals from the suckle control (SC), GC, and EtOH groups were exposed to constant darkness (DD) and SCN tissue was harvested for subsequent analysis of either VIP mRNA expression by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and in situ hybridization or of VIP-immunoreactive (ir) neurons using stereological methods. Neonatal alcohol exposure had no impact on VIP mRNA expression but dramatically altered immunostaining of neurons containing this peptide within the SCN of adult rats. The relative abundance of VIP mRNA and anatomical distribution of neurons expressing this transcript were similar among all control- and EtOH-treated groups. However, the total number and density of VIP-ir neurons within the SCN were significantly decreased by about 35% in rats exposed to alcohol at a dose of 6.0 g/kg/day relative to that observed in both control groups. These results demonstrate that VIP neuronal populations in the SCN are vulnerable to EtOH-induced insult during brain development. The observed alterations in SCN neurons containing VIP may have an impact upon clock responses to light input and thus contribute to the long-term effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on the photic regulation of circadian behavior.

An autonomous circadian clock in the inner mouse retina regulated by dopamine and GABA.

The influence of the mammalian retinal circadian clock on retinal physiology and function is widely recognized, yet the cellular elements and neural regulation of retinal circadian pacemaking remain unclear due to the challenge of long-term culture of adult mammalian retina and the lack of an ideal experimental measure of the retinal circadian clock. In the current study, we developed a protocol for long-term culture of intact mouse retinas, which allows retinal circadian rhythms to be monitored in real time as luminescence rhythms from a PERIOD2::LUCIFERASE (PER2::LUC) clock gene reporter. With this in vitro assay, we studied the characteristics and location within the retina of circadian PER2::LUC rhythms, the influence of major retinal neurotransmitters, and the resetting of the retinal circadian clock by light. Retinal PER2::LUC rhythms were routinely measured from whole-mount retinal explants for 10 d and for up to 30 d. Imaging of vertical retinal slices demonstrated that the rhythmic luminescence signals were concentrated in the inner nuclear layer. Interruption of cell communication via the major neurotransmitter systems of photoreceptors and ganglion cells (melatonin and glutamate) and the inner nuclear layer (dopamine, acetylcholine, GABA, glycine, and glutamate) did not disrupt generation of retinal circadian PER2::LUC rhythms, nor did interruption of intercellular communication through sodium-dependent action potentials or connexin 36 (cx36)-containing gap junctions, indicating that PER2::LUC rhythms generation in the inner nuclear layer is likely cell autonomous. However, dopamine, acting through D1 receptors, and GABA, acting through membrane hyperpolarization and casein kinase, set the phase and amplitude of retinal PER2::LUC rhythms, respectively. Light pulses reset the phase of the in vitro retinal oscillator and dopamine D1 receptor antagonists attenuated these phase shifts. Thus, dopamine and GABA act at the molecular level of PER proteins to play key roles in the organization of the retinal circadian clock.

Neuroglobin in the rat brain: localization.

Neuroglobin (Ngb) is a neuronal hemeprotein similar to myoglobin and hemoglobin and shares their capability for oxygen binding. It has thus been proposed that Ngb acts as an oxygen reservoir or combats reactive oxygen species. In the present study, we investigated the Ngb expression pattern in the rat brain using immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization, and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). This revealed the interesting finding that Ngb expression is restricted to a few neurone populations, many of which are involved in the sleep-wake cycle, circadian regulation or food regulation. In the forebrain we found intense Ngb expression in neurones in the piriform cortex, the central and medial amygdala, the medial preoptic area, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, the perifornical nucleus, the lateral hypothalamus. Within the mid- and hindbrain Ngb expressing neurones were found in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, the pedunculo pontine tegmental nucleus, the locus coeruleus, and the lateral parabrachial nucleus. In the medulla oblongata Ngb expressing neurones were found in the nucleus of the solitary tract. The qRT-PCR data showed a diurnal variation of Ngb mRNA in the SCN, having a peak in the day time (light-period) and nadir during night (dark-period).

Neonatal alcohol exposure differentially alters clock gene oscillations within the suprachiasmatic nucleus, cerebellum, and liver of adult rats.

BACKGROUND: In rats, alcohol exposure during the period of rapid brain growth produces long-term changes in the free-running period, photoentrainment and phase-shifting responses of the circadian rhythm in wheel-running behavior. To determine whether these alterations in circadian behavior are associated with permanent damage to the circadian timekeeping mechanism or reconfiguration of its molecular components, we examined the long-term effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on clock gene rhythms in the pacemaker located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and in other brain or peripheral tissues of adult rats. METHODS: Artificially reared male rat pups were exposed to alcohol (4.5 g/kg/d) or isocaloric milk formula (gastrostomy control; GC) on postnatal days 4 to 9. At 3 months of age, animals were exposed to constant darkness and then SCN, cerebellum, and liver tissue were harvested at 6-hour intervals for subsequent analysis of Period1 (Per1), Per2, Cryptochrome1 (Cry1), Bmal1, and Rev-erbalpha mRNA levels by quantitative PCR. RESULTS: In the SCN, cerebellum and liver, Per1, Per2, Cry1, Bmal1, and Rev-erbalpha expression oscillated with a similar amplitude (peak-to-trough differences of 2- to 9-fold) and phase in the suckle control (SC) and GC groups. These clock gene rhythms in control animals were marked by peak expression of Per1, Per2, Cry1, and Rev-erbalpha during the subjective day and of Bmal1 during the subjective night. The EtOH group was distinguished by altered rhythms in the expression of specific clock genes within the SCN, cerebellum and liver. In EtOH-treated rats, the SCN rhythm in Cry1 expression was strongly damped and the Per2 rhythms in the cerebellum and liver were phase-advanced such that peak expression occurred during the mid-subjective day. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate alcohol exposure during the brain growth spurt alters the circadian regulation of some molecular components of the clock mechanism in the rat SCN, cerebellum, and liver. The observed alterations in the temporal configuration of essential "gears" of the molecular clockworks may play a role in the long-term effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on the regulation of circadian behavior.

Gastrin-releasing peptide mediates light-like resetting of the suprachiasmatic nucleus circadian pacemaker through cAMP response element-binding protein and Per1 activation.

Circadian rhythmicity in the primary mammalian circadian pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, is maintained by transcriptional and translational feedback loops among circadian clock genes. Photic resetting of the SCN pacemaker involves induction of the clock genes Period1 (Per1) and Period2 (Per2) and communication among distinct cell populations. Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) is localized to the SCN ventral retinorecipient zone, from where it may communicate photic resetting signals within the SCN network. Here, we tested the putative role of GRP as an intra-SCN light signal at the behavioral and cellular levels, and we also tested whether GRP actions are dependent on activation of the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) pathway and Per1. In vivo microinjections of GRP to the SCN regions of Per1::green fluorescent protein (GFP) mice during the late night induced Per1::GFP throughout the SCN, including a limited population of arginine vasopressin-immunoreactive (AVP-IR) neurons. Blocking spike-mediated communication with tetrodotoxin did not disrupt overall Per1::GFP induction but did reduce induction within AVP-IR neurons. In vitro GRP application resulted in persistent increases in the spike frequency of Per1::GFP-induced neurons. Blocking endogenous Per1 with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides inhibited GRP-induced increases in spike frequency. Furthermore, inhibition of CREB-mediated gene activation with decoy oligonucleotides blocked GRP-induced phase shifts of PER2::luciferase rhythms in SCN slices. Altogether, these results indicate that GRP communicates phase resetting signals within the SCN network via both spike-dependent and spike-independent mechanisms, and that activation of the CREB pathway and Per1 are key steps in mediating downstream events in GRP resetting of SCN neurons.

Circadian profiling of the transcriptome in NIH/3T3 fibroblasts: comparison with rhythmic gene expression in SCN2.2 cells and the rat SCN.

To screen for output signals that may distinguish the pacemaker in the mammalian suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) from peripheral-type oscillators in which the canonical clockworks are similarly regulated in a circadian manner, the rhythmic behavior of the transcriptome in forskolin-stimulated NIH/3T3 fibroblasts was analyzed and compared relative to SCN2.2 cells in vitro and the rat SCN. Similar to the circadian profiling of the SCN2.2 and rat SCN transcriptomes, NIH/3T3 fibroblasts exhibited circadian fluctuations in the expression of the core clock genes, Per2, Cry1, and Bmal1, and 323 functionally diverse transcripts, many of which regulate cellular communication. Overlap in rhythmic transcripts among NIH/3T3 fibroblasts, SCN2.2 cells, and the rat SCN was limited to these clock genes and four other genes that mediate fatty acid and lipid metabolism or function as nuclear factors. Compared with NIH/3T3 cells, circadian gene expression in SCN oscillators was more prevalent among genes mediating glucose metabolism and neurotransmission. Coupled with evidence for the rhythmic regulation of the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase (iNos) in SCN2.2 cells and the rat SCN but not in fibroblasts, studies examining the effects of a NOS inhibitor on metabolic rhythms in cocultures containing SCN2.2 cells and untreated NIH/3T3 cells suggest that the gaseous neurotransmitter nitric oxide may play a key role in SCN pacemaker function. This comparative analysis of circadian gene expression in SCN and non-SCN cells may have important implications in the selective analysis of circadian signals involved in the coupling of SCN oscillators and regulation of rhythmicity in downstream cells.

Neonatal alcohol exposure permanently disrupts the circadian properties and photic entrainment of the activity rhythm in adult rats.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol exposure during the period of rapid brain development produces structural damage in different brain regions, including the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), that may have permanent neurobehavioral consequences. Thus, this study examined the long-term effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on circadian behavioral activity in adult rats. METHODS: Artificially reared Sprague-Dawley rat pups were exposed to alcohol (EtOH; 4.5 g/kg/day) or isocaloric milk formula (gastrostomy control; GC) on postnatal days 4-9. At 2 months of age, rats from the EtOH, GC, and suckle control (SC) groups were housed individually, and properties of the circadian rhythm in wheel-running behavior were continuously analyzed during exposure to a 12-hr light:12-hr dark photoperiod (LD 12:12) or constant darkness (DD). RESULTS: Neonatal alcohol exposure had distinctive effects on the rhythmic properties and quantitative parameters of adult wheel-running behavior. EtOH-treated animals were distinguished by unstable and altered entrainment to LD 12:12 such that their daily onsets of activity were highly variable and occurred at earlier times relative to control animals. In DD, circadian regulation of wheel-running behavior was altered by neonatal alcohol exposure such that the free-running period of the activity rhythm was shorter in EtOH-exposed rats than in control animals. Total amount of daily wheel-running activity in EtOH-treated rats was greater than that observed in the SC group. In addition, the circadian activity patterns of EtOH-exposed rats were fragmented such that the duration of the active phase and the number of activity bouts per day were increased. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that neonatal alcohol exposure produces permanent changes in the circadian regulation of the rat activity rhythm and its entrainment to LD cycles. These long-term alterations in circadian behavior, along with the developmental alcohol-induced changes in SCN endogenous rhythmicity, may have important implications in clinical sleep-wake disturbances observed in neonates, children, and adults exposed to alcohol in utero.

TrkB-deficient mice show diminished phase shifts of the circadian activity rhythm in response to light.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been implicated in the mechanism underlying the circadian sensitivity of the clock in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to the phase-shifting effects of light. In the present study, we examined the role of the cognate receptor for BDNF, the TrkB tyrosine kinase, in the photic regulation of the SCN clock by determining whether the phase-shifting action of light is impaired in mice with targeted mutation of the TrkB gene. In comparison with wild-type littermates, heterozygous TrkB mutant mice (trkB(+/-)) showed marked reductions in SCN and cortical levels of this neurotrophin receptor that were accompanied by decreases in the amplitude of light-induced phase shifts during the subjective night. These results provide further evidence indicating that BDNF-mediated signaling through the TrkB receptor is an important process in the gating of SCN responses to light and its phase-shifting effects on circadian rhythms.

Overlap in the distribution of TrkB immunoreactivity and retinohypothalamic tract innervation of the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may regulate the circadian sensitivity of the clock in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to light, possibly by modulating retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) input. In the present study, the anatomical distribution of the cognate receptor for BDNF, the TrkB tyrosine kinase, in RHT fibers and the SCN of rats was analyzed using combined immunohistochemical and anterograde tracing methods. Fluorescent immunostaining for the TrkB receptor was evident in fibers and cell bodies throughout the SCN. Dual labeling analysis revealed that there was substantial overlap in the distribution of TrkB immunostaining and cholera toxin subunit B (CTB)-labeling within RHT terminals and fibers projecting from the optic chiasm to the ventrolateral SCN. The present results suggest that RHT fibers may express TrkB receptors and thus provide a paracrine target for BDNF-mediated regulation of photic input to the SCN.

Long-term effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on photic reentrainment and phase-shifting responses of the activity rhythm in adult rats.

In rats, neonatal alcohol (EtOH) exposure coinciding with the period of rapid brain growth produces structural damage in some brain regions that often persists into adulthood and thus may have long-term consequences in the neural regulation of behavior. Because recent findings indicate that the circadian clock located in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus is vulnerable to alcohol-induced insults during development, the present study examined the long-term effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on the photic regulation of circadian behavior in adult rats. Rat pups were exposed to alcohol (3.0, 4.5, or 6.0 g x kg(-1) x day(-1)) or isocaloric milk formula on postnatal days 4-9 using artificial-rearing methods. At 2 months of age, animals were housed individually and circadian wheel-running behavior was continuously analyzed to determine the effects of neonatal alcohol treatment on the rate of reentrainment to a 6-h advance in the 12-h light:12-h dark photoperiod and the phase-shifting properties of free-running rhythms in response to discrete light pulses on a background of constant darkness. For all doses, neonatal alcohol exposure had a significant effect in reducing the time for reentrainment such that EtOH-treated rats required four to five fewer days than control animals for stable realignment of the activity rhythm to the shifted light-dark cycle. Coupled with the accelerated rate of reentrainment, the amplitude of light-evoked phase delays at circadian time 14 and advances at circadian time 22 in the 4.5 and 6.0 g x kg(-1) x day(-1) EtOH groups was almost twofold greater than that observed in control animals. The present observations indicate that the mechanisms by which photic signals regulate circadian behavior are permanently altered following alcohol exposure during the period of rapid brain development. These long-term alterations in the photic regulation of circadian rhythms may account, at least partially, for some neurobehavioral consequences of prenatal alcohol exposure in humans such as depression.

Developmental alcohol exposure alters light-induced phase shifts of the circadian activity rhythm in rats.

BACKGROUND: Developmental alcohol (EtOH) exposure produces long-term changes in the photic regulation of rat circadian behavior. Because entrainment of circadian rhythms to 24-hr light/dark cycles is mediated by phase shifting or resetting the clock mechanism, we examined whether developmental EtOH exposure also alters the phase-shifting effects of light pulses on the rat activity rhythm. METHODS: Artificially reared Sprague-Dawley rat pups were exposed to EtOH (4.5 g/kg/day) or an isocaloric milk formula (gastrostomy control; GC) on postnatal days 4 to 9. At 2 months of age, rats from the EtOH, GC, and suckle control groups were housed individually, and wheel-running behavior was continuously recorded first in a 12-hr light/12-hr dark photoperiod for 10 to 14 days and thereafter in constant darkness (DD). Once the activity rhythm was observed to stably free-run in DD for at least 14 days, animals were exposed to a 15-min light pulse at either 2 or 10 hr after the onset of activity [i.e., circadian time (CT) 14 or 22, respectively], because light exposure at these times induces maximal phase delays or advances of the rat activity rhythm. RESULTS: EtOH-treated rats were distinguished by robust increases in their phase-shifting responses to light. In the suckle control and GC groups, light pulses shifted the activity rhythm as expected, inducing phase delays of approximately 2 hr at CT 14 and advances of similar amplitude at CT 22. In contrast, the same light stimulus produced phase delays at CT 14 and advances at CT 22 of longer than 3 hr in EtOH-treated rats. The mean phase delay at CT 14 and advance at CT 22 in EtOH rats were significantly greater (p < 0.05) than the light-induced shifts observed in control animals. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate that developmental EtOH exposure alters the phase-shifting responses of the rat activity rhythm to light. This finding, coupled with changes in the circadian period and light/dark entrainment observed in EtOH-treated rats, suggests that developmental EtOH exposure may permanently alter the clock mechanism in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and its regulation of circadian behavior.

Developmental alcohol exposure disrupts circadian regulation of BDNF in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus.

In rats, damage to neuronal populations in some brain regions occurs in response to neonatal alcohol exposure coinciding with the period of rapid brain growth. These alcohol-induced defects in brain development may persist into adulthood and thus have long-term implications for the functional characteristics of damaged neuronal populations. The present study examined the effects of neonatal alcohol exposure on endogenous rhythmicity of the circadian clock located in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Specifically, experiments were conducted to determine whether neonatal alcohol exposure alters the circadian rhythm of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) content in the rat SCN because this neurotrophin is an important rhythmic output from the SCN clock. Male rat pups were exposed to alcohol (4.5 g/kg/day) or isocaloric milk formula on postnatal days 4-9 using artificial rearing methods. At 5-6 months of age, SCN and hippocampal tissue was harvested and subsequently examined for content of BDNF protein. Time-dependent fluctuations in BDNF protein levels were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In alcohol-treated rats, SCN levels of BDNF were significantly decreased and were characterized by a loss of circadian rhythmicity relative to those observed in control animals. In comparison, hippocampal levels of BDNF displayed no evidence of circadian regulation in all three treatment groups, but were slightly lower in alcohol-treated animals than in control groups. Importantly, these observations suggest that alcohol exposure during the period of rapid brain development may cause permanent changes in the SCN circadian clock.

Real-time analysis of rhythmic gene expression in immortalized suprachiasmatic nucleus cells.

Immortalized cells derived from the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) retain many properties of the SCN including the capacity to generate circadian rhythms. Stably transfected SCN2.2 cells expressing the human c- promoter linked to a luciferase reporter gene ( /luc) were examined for evidence of transgene responses to stimuli known to induce c- expression and of endogenous rhythmic variation. Bioluminescence-reported transgene expression was induced in SCN2.2 /luc cells following stimulation with fetal bovine serum or KCl. SCN2.2 /luc cells showed 24 h rhythms of bioluminescence with a 9- to 19-fold difference between peak and minimum levels. These results demonstrate that the regulation of /luc transgene expression in SCN2.2 cells is similar to that of the endogenous c- gene in the SCN.