Visitor engagement with zoo staff and interpretive demonstrations increases visitor stay time in two free-flight aviaries.

Understanding how visitors spend time in zoo exhibits is important as zoological facilities work to enhance visitor experience and conservation education outcomes. We explored a variety of factors we hypothesized would influence visitor stay times in two aviaries at Disney's Animal Kingdom®. Within these aviaries, visitors could utilize educational materials, listen to staff-led demonstrations, or talks, view animal training sessions, or speak directly with animal care or education staff. We observed visitors and recorded the opportunities they utilized in the exhibit. Visitors to either aviary who conversed with exhibit-specific staff stayed between 67% and 89% longer than visitors who did not. In addition, visitors who used a bird guide while in either aviary stayed between 59% and 82% longer than those who did not. Those who listened to an animal care talk or engaged with a staff-led demonstration stayed between 50% and 68% longer than those who did not have the option to participate in such activities. This study provides insight into how exhibit offerings can influence visitor behavior. Implementing strategies used in this study to increase visitors' time in an exhibit may enhance visitor experience and improve learning outcomes.

Strengthening the research-practice loop in applied animal behavior: Introduction to the special issue.

Though operant learning has been applied to socially significant animal behavior for many years, connections between these practical applications and the basic science that supports them have weakened over time. There is a need for replications and extensions of technologies derived from basic research to applied animal settings, and for practical questions to be taken back to the lab where they can be modeled and studied under controlled conditions before incorporating the results in applied behavior-change research and practice. This special issue highlights ways that behavior analysis can contribute to and support the development of evidence-based applications with animals. Articles in this issue provide context for the relationship between basic research and practice in animal behavior, apply basic principles to animal behavior practice, and investigate practical problems using basic research techniques. Each of these is important for a robust interchange between basic science and practice. Here we comment on the contributions of each article to the literature and identify directions for future research.

Branching Out: Finding Success in New Areas of Practice.

In recent years, researchers and practitioners in behavior analysis have called for expanding the application of the science to new, socially relevant areas. The authors of this article work in the areas of applied animal behavior and organizational behavior management, and we are often asked for guidance and mentoring to help behavior analysts transition into our domains. Here, we offer actionable guidance for bridging the gap between behavior analysis graduate training and career paths that are not yet common for behavior analysts. Working in new practice areas involves a great deal of problem solving without much support. Thus, obtaining high-quality, in-depth training in behavior analysis is essential. We recommend building competence in a new area of practice by finding a mentor or community of practice and then seeking paid employment in that area as soon as possible. Finally, when one begins to work in a new area, it is essential to be realistic and humble. We offer practical advice for implementing each of these suggestions.

Casting a Wider Net: an Analysis of Scholarly Contributions of Behavior Analysis Graduate Program Faculty.

As interest in careers in behavior analysis has grown, there has been a concomitant increase in the number of training programs providing coursework in behavior analysis. There is a growing need for indices of quality of these programs, with some authors recently suggesting that faculty research productivity might serve as one indicator of program quality. We continue this conversation, taking a broad view of faculty scholarly contributions by conducting a search of all articles authored by instructors in graduate-level Behavior Analyst Certification Board verified course sequences (VCSs) and published from 2000 to 2015 in peer-reviewed journals indexed by the PsycINFO database. The resulting list includes 8,906 publication records in 715 journals, authored by 1,232 instructors from 224 programs. Our analysis suggests that graduate-level VCS instructors have published in a broad array of journals and topic areas. We discuss implications of these data for prospective students' evaluations of program quality and fit.

Applying behavior-analytic methodology to the science and practice of environmental enrichment in zoos and aquariums.

Environmental enrichment in zoos and aquariums is often evaluated at two overlapping levels: published research and day-to-day institutional record keeping. Several authors have discussed ongoing challenges with small sample sizes in between-groups zoological research and have cautioned against the inappropriate use of inferential statistics (Shepherdson, , International Zoo Yearbook, 38, 118-124; Shepherdson, Lewis, Carlstead, Bauman, & Perrin, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 147, 298-277; Swaisgood, , Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 139-162; Swaisgood & Shepherdson, , Zoo Biology, 24, 499-518). Multi-institutional studies are the typically-prescribed solution, but these are expensive and difficult to carry out. Kuhar ( Zoo Biology, 25, 339-352) provided a reminder that inferential statistics are only necessary when one wishes to draw general conclusions at the population level. Because welfare is assessed at the level of the individual animal, we argue that evaluations of enrichment efficacy are often instances in which inferential statistics may be neither necessary nor appropriate. In recent years, there have been calls for the application of behavior-analytic techniques to zoo animal behavior management, including environmental enrichment (e.g., Bloomsmith, Marr, & Maple, , Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 205-222; Tarou & Bashaw, , Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 189-204). Single-subject (also called single-case, or small-n) designs provide a means of designing evaluations of enrichment efficacy based on an individual's behavior. We discuss how these designs might apply to research and practice goals at zoos and aquariums, contrast them with standard practices in the field, and give examples of how each could be successfully applied in a zoo or aquarium setting.

Development of a body condition scoring index for female African elephants validated by ultrasound measurements of subcutaneous fat.

Obesity-related health and reproductive problems may be contributing to non-sustainability of zoo African elephant (Loxodonta africana) populations. However, a major constraint in screening for obesity in elephants is lack of a practical method to accurately assess body fat. Body condition scoring (BCS) is the assessment of subcutaneous fat stores based on visual evaluation and provides an immediate appraisal of the degree of obesity of an individual. The objective of this study was to develop a visual BCS index for female African elephants and validate it using ultrasound measures of subcutaneous fat. To develop the index, standardized photographs were collected from zoo (n = 50) and free-ranging (n = 57) female African elephants for identifying key body regions and skeletal features, which were then used to visually determine body fat deposition patterns. This information was used to develop a visual BCS method consisting of a list of body regions and the physical criteria for assigning an overall score on a 5-point scale, with 1 representing the lowest and 5 representing the highest levels of body fat. Results showed that as BCS increased, ultrasound measures of subcutaneous fat thickness also increased (P<0.01), indicating the scores closely coincide with physical measures of fat reserves. The BCS index proved to be reliable and repeatable based on high intra- and inter-assessor agreement across three assessors. In comparing photographs of wild vs. captive African elephants, the median BCS in the free-ranging individuals (BCS = 3, range 1-5) was lower (P<0.001) than that of the zoo population (BCS = 4, range 2-5). In sum, we have developed the first validated BCS index for African elephants. This tool can be used to examine which factors impact body condition in zoo and free-ranging elephants, providing valuable information on how it affects health and reproductive potential of individual elephants.

The vocal repertoire of the Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli).

The Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli) is an endangered rodent endemic to the island of Key Largo, FL. There is little information on vocal communication in this species and descriptions of the acoustic structure of calls are lacking. A captive breeding program was established as part of the recovery plan for the species, providing the opportunity to investigate the vocal repertoire and acoustic structure of calls in both wild and captive contexts. Audio and video recordings were conducted at the Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge in Key Largo and at Disney's Animal Kingdom(®). Analysis of the acoustic structure of calls resulted in four provisional call types: "Tonal calls" consisted of "ultrasonic vocalizations" (40 kHz fundamental frequency, F(0)), "high squeaks" (10 kHz F(0)), and "squeaks" (1.8 kHz F(0)). "Noisy," broadband calls known as "raspy" vocalizations did not exhibit fundamental frequencies, but contained several prominent spectral peaks (from 9 to 40 kHz). The social contexts of vocal production showed that all four call types were associated with pup need or interactions between pups and dams, and that raspy vocalizations were associated with courtship and copulation. Adults without pups exhibited little or no vocal activity, which may result from solitary lifestyles and predator avoidance.

Development of husbandry practices for the captive breeding of Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli).

The Key Largo woodrat is an endangered rodent endemic to the island of Key Largo in the Florida Keys. After several reports documented a steep decline in the population, the US Fish and Wildlife Service developed a recovery plan, including captive breeding and reintroduction. Captive breeding efforts were to be focused on providing animals for future reintroduction to protected areas on Key Largo. However, little was known about the husbandry needs or reproductive behavior of this elusive nocturnal species. In 2005, Disney's Animal Kingdom(®) received 11 animals and began to systematically investigate methods of breeding Key Largo woodrats. Since the program's inception, 30 pups have been born and successfully parent reared. In this report, we describe some of the husbandry techniques that have contributed to the success of the Key Largo woodrat captive breeding program at Disney's Animal Kingdom(®) . The results obtained may be of use to other facilities maintaining woodrats and other rodent species.

Behavioral predictors of copulation in captive Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli).

The development of a captive breeding program for the endangered Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli) presents special challenges due to aggressive behavior toward conspecifics, a low reproductive rate, and limited information on estrous cycles. In an effort to identify behavioral predictors of copulation, we observed 17 Key Largo woodrats prior to and during 267 male-female pairing events, 76 of which resulted in copulation. Predictors of copulation include male-female interactions at the door of the tube connecting their enclosures, raspy vocalizations, pre-mounting lordosis, and chasing. A binary logistic regression model based on pre-pairing behaviors correctly predicted the outcome of 78.7% of observed pairing events, and a similar model based on intra-pairing behaviors correctly predicted the outcome of 86.1% of observed pairing events. Behavior-based models may be useful in the management of captive breeding programs for this and other endangered species.

Pup development and maternal behavior in captive Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli).

This study describes the first systematic observations of maternal behavior and pup development of captive Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli) during the first 30 days of life. Data were collected on six litters of pups born to four dams between December 2006 and July 2007. Gestations for the six litters averaged 38 days and all dams exhibited adequate maternal care postpartum. Key Largo woodrat maternal and pup behavior was generally consistent with behavior observed in other woodrat species. We observed greater pup independence from the dam and a marked change in social interactions between days 13-22. No sex differences in pup development or maternal care were observed. Activity budgets were consistent across dams and across days within the observation period. Although dams spent much of their time inactive with pups attached to their teats, the average percent of intervals with at least one pup observed attached decreased steadily during the 30-day observation period. Attachment of pups to the dams' teats did not interfere with dams' ability to forage. Feeding with pups attached and feeding following active detachment of pups were both common. Dams were observed to actively detach pups by performing a circular turning motion. This information has application for the future management of this endangered species in captivity and in the wild. Zoo Biol 27:394-405, 2008. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.