The Purinome and the preBötzinger Complex - A Ménage of Unexplored Mechanisms That May Modulate/Shape the Hypoxic Ventilatory Response.

Exploration of purinergic signaling in brainstem homeostatic control processes is challenging the traditional view that the biphasic hypoxic ventilatory response, which comprises a rapid initial increase in breathing followed by a slower secondary depression, reflects the interaction between peripheral chemoreceptor-mediated excitation and central inhibition. While controversial, accumulating evidence supports that in addition to peripheral excitation, interactions between central excitatory and inhibitory purinergic mechanisms shape this key homeostatic reflex. The objective of this review is to present our working model of how purinergic signaling modulates the glutamatergic inspiratory synapse in the preBötzinger Complex (key site of inspiratory rhythm generation) to shape the hypoxic ventilatory response. It is based on the perspective that has emerged from decades of analysis of glutamatergic synapses in the hippocampus, where the actions of extracellular ATP are determined by a complex signaling system, the purinome. The purinome involves not only the actions of ATP and adenosine at P2 and P1 receptors, respectively, but diverse families of enzymes and transporters that collectively determine the rate of ATP degradation, adenosine accumulation and adenosine clearance. We summarize current knowledge of the roles played by these different purinergic elements in the hypoxic ventilatory response, often drawing on examples from other brain regions, and look ahead to many unanswered questions and remaining challenges.

Excitatory Modulation of the preBötzinger Complex Inspiratory Rhythm Generating Network by Endogenous Hydrogen Sulfide.

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is one of three gasotransmitters that modulate excitability in the CNS. Global application of H2S donors or inhibitors of H2S synthesis to the respiratory network has suggested that inspiratory rhythm is modulated by exogenous and endogenous H2S. However, effects have been variable, which may reflect that the RTN/pFRG (retrotrapezoid nucleus, parafacial respiratory group) and the preBötzinger Complex (preBötC, critical for inspiratory rhythm generation) are differentially modulated by exogenous H2S. Importantly, site-specific modulation of respiratory nuclei by H2S means that targeted, rather than global, manipulation of respiratory nuclei is required to understand the role of H2S signaling in respiratory control. Thus, our aim was to test whether endogenous H2S, which is produced by cystathionine-ß-synthase (CBS) in the CNS, acts specifically within the preBötC to modulate inspiratory activity under basal (in vitro/in vivo) and hypoxic conditions (in vivo). Inhibition of endogenous H2S production by bath application of the CBS inhibitor, aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA, 0.1-1.0 mM) to rhythmic brainstem spinal cord (BSSC) and medullary slice preparations from newborn rats, or local application of AOAA into the preBötC (slices only) caused a dose-dependent decrease in burst frequency. Unilateral injection of AOAA into the preBötC of anesthetized, paralyzed adult rats decreased basal inspiratory burst frequency, amplitude and ventilatory output. AOAA in vivo did not affect the initial hypoxia-induced (10% O2, 5 min) increase in ventilatory output, but enhanced the secondary hypoxic respiratory depression. These data suggest that the preBötC inspiratory network receives tonic excitatory modulation from the CBS-H2S system, and that endogenous H2S attenuates the secondary hypoxic respiratory depression.

Neuroglia and their roles in central respiratory control; an overview.

While once viewed as mere housekeepers, providing structural and metabolic support for neurons, it is now clear that neuroglia do much more. Phylogenetically, they have undergone enormous proliferation and diversification as central nervous systems grew in their complexity. In addition, they: i) are morphologically and functionally diverse; ii) play numerous, vital roles in maintaining CNS homeostasis; iii) are key players in brain development and responses to injury; and, iv) via gliotransmission, are likely participants in information processing. In this review, we discuss the diverse roles of neuroglia in maintaining homeostasis in the CNS, their evolutionary origins, the different types of neuroglia and their functional significance for respiratory control, and finally consider evidence that they contribute to the processing of chemosensory information in the respiratory network and the homeostatic control of blood gases.

Glia contribute to the purinergic modulation of inspiratory rhythm-generating networks.

Glia modulate neuronal activity by releasing transmitters in a process called gliotransmission. The role of this process in controlling the activity of neuronal networks underlying motor behavior is unknown. ATP features prominently in gliotransmission; it also contributes to the homeostatic ventilatory response evoked by low oxygen through mechanisms that likely include excitation of preBötzinger complex (preBötC) neural networks, brainstem centers critical for breathing. We therefore inhibited glial function in rhythmically active inspiratory networks in vitro to determine whether glia contribute to preBötC ATP sensitivity. Glial toxins markedly reduced preBötC responses to ATP, but not other modulators. Furthermore, since preBötC glia responded to ATP with increased intracellular Ca(2+) and glutamate release, we conclude that glia contribute to the ATP sensitivity of preBötC networks, and possibly the hypoxic ventilatory response. Data reveal a role for glia in signal processing within brainstem motor networks that may be relevant to similar networks throughout the neuraxis.