COVID-19 and Alzheimer's Disease Share Common Neurological and Ophthalmological Manifestations: A Bidirectional Risk in the Post-Pandemic Future.

A growing body of evidence indicates that a neuropathological cross-talk takes place between the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) -the pandemic severe pneumonia that has had a tremendous impact on the global economy and health since three years after its outbreak in December 2019- and Alzheimer's Disease (AD), the leading cause of dementia among human beings, reaching 139 million by the year 2050. Even though COVID-19 is a primary respiratory disease, its causative agent, the so-called Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is also endowed with high neuro-invasive potential (Neurocovid). The neurological complications of COVID-19, resulting from the direct viral entry into the Central Nervous System (CNS) and/or indirect systemic inflammation and dysregulated activation of immune response, encompass memory decline and anosmia which are typically associated with AD symptomatology. In addition, patients diagnosed with AD are more vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 infection and are inclined to more severe clinical outcomes. In the present review, we better elucidate the intimate connection between COVID-19 and AD by summarizing the involved risk factors/targets and the underlying biological mechanisms shared by these two disorders with a particular focus on the Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, APOlipoprotein E (APOE), aging, neuroinflammation and cellular pathways associated with the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP)/Amyloid beta (Aß) and tau neuropathologies. Finally, the involvement of ophthalmological manifestations, including vitreo-retinal abnormalities and visual deficits, in both COVID-19 and AD are also discussed. Understanding the common physiopathological aspects linking COVID-19 and AD will pave the way to novel management and diagnostic/therapeutic approaches to cope with them in the post-pandemic future.

Transcriptomic Analysis in the Hippocampus and Retina of Tg2576 AD Mice Reveals Defective Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation and Recovery by Tau 12A12mAb Treatment.

Increasing evidence implicates decreased energy metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunctions among the earliest pathogenic events of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying bioenergetic dysfunctions in AD remain, to date, largely unknown. In this work, we analyzed transcriptomic changes occurring in the hippocampus and retina of a Tg2576 AD mouse model and wild-type controls, evaluating their functional implications by gene set enrichment analysis. The results revealed that oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial-related pathways are significantly down-regulated in both tissues of Tg2576 mice, supporting the role of these processes in the pathogenesis of AD. In addition, we also analyzed transcriptomic changes occurring in Tg2576 mice treated with the 12A12 monoclonal antibody that neutralizes an AD-relevant tau-derived neurotoxic peptide in vivo. Our analysis showed that the mitochondrial alterations observed in AD mice were significantly reverted by treatment with 12A12mAb, supporting bioenergetic pathways as key mediators of its in vivo neuroprotective and anti-amyloidogenic effects. This study provides, for the first time, a comprehensive characterization of molecular events underlying the disrupted mitochondrial bioenergetics in AD pathology, laying the foundation for the future development of diagnostic and therapeutic tools.

The Cleavage-Specific Tau 12A12mAb Exerts an Anti-Amyloidogenic Action by Modulating the Endocytic and Bioenergetic Pathways in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model.

Beyond deficits in hippocampal-dependent episodic memory, Alzheimer's Disease (AD) features sensory impairment in visual cognition consistent with extensive neuropathology in the retina. 12A12 is a monoclonal cleavage specific antibody (mAb) that in vivo selectively neutralizes the AD-relevant, harmful N-terminal 20-22 kDa tau fragment(s) (i.e., NH2htau) without affecting the full-length normal protein. When systemically injected into the Tg2576 mouse model overexpressing a mutant form of Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP), APPK670/671L linked to early onset familial AD, this conformation-specific tau mAb successfully reduces the NH2htau accumulating both in their brain and retina and, thus, markedly alleviates the phenotype-associated signs. By means of a combined biochemical and metabolic experimental approach, we report that 12A12mAb downregulates the steady state expression levels of APP and Beta-Secretase 1 (BACE-1) and, thus, limits the Amyloid beta (Aß) production both in the hippocampus and retina from this AD animal model. The local, antibody-mediated anti-amyloidogenic action is paralleled in vivo by coordinated modulation of the endocytic (BIN1, RIN3) and bioenergetic (glycolysis and L-Lactate) pathways. These findings indicate for the first time that similar molecular and metabolic retino-cerebral pathways are modulated in a coordinated fashion in response to 12A12mAb treatment to tackle the neurosensorial Aß accumulation in AD neurodegeneration.

Immunotherapy with Cleavage-Specific 12A12mAb Reduces the Tau Cleavage in Visual Cortex and Improves Visuo-Spatial Recognition Memory in Tg2576 AD Mouse Model.

Tau-targeted immunotherapy is a promising approach for treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Beyond cognitive decline, AD features visual deficits consistent with the manifestation of Amyloid ß-protein (Aß) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) in the eyes and higher visual centers, both in animal models and affected subjects. We reported that 12A12-a monoclonal cleavage-specific antibody (mAb) which in vivo neutralizes the neurotoxic, N-terminal 20-22 kDa tau fragment(s)-significantly reduces the retinal accumulation in Tg(HuAPP695Swe)2576 mice of both tau and APP/Aß pathologies correlated with local inflammation and synaptic deterioration. Here, we report the occurrence of N-terminal tau cleavage in the primary visual cortex (V1 area) and the beneficial effect of 12A12mAb treatment on phenotype-associated visuo-spatial deficits in this AD animal model. We found out that non-invasive administration of 12 A12mAb markedly reduced the pathological accumulation of both truncated tau and Aß in the V1 area, correlated to significant improvement in visual recognition memory performance along with local increase in two direct readouts of cortical synaptic plasticity, including the dendritic spine density and the expression level of activity-regulated cytoskeleton protein Arc/Arg3.1. Translation of these findings to clinical therapeutic interventions could offer an innovative tau-directed opportunity to delay or halt the visual impairments occurring during AD progression.

Morphological and biomolecular targets in retina and vitreous from Reelin-deficient mice (Reeler): Potential implications for age-related macular degeneration in Alzheimer's dementia.

The neurosensory retina is an outgrowth of the Central Nervous System (CNS), and the eye is considered "a window to the brain." Reelin glycoprotein is directly involved in neurodevelopment, in synaptic plasticity, learning and memory. Consequently, abnormal Reelin signaling has been associated with brain neurodegeneration but its contributing role in ocular degeneration is still poorly explored. To this aim, experimental procedures were assayed on vitreous or retinas obtained from Reeler mice (knockout for Reelin protein) at different postnatal days (p) p14, p21 and p28. At p28, a significant increase in the expression of Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) and its amyloidogenic peptide (Aß1-42 along with truncated tau fragment (i.e., NH2htau)- three pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD)-were found in Reeler mice when compared to their age-matched wild-type controls. Likewise, several inflammatory mediators, such as Interleukins, or crucial biomarkers of oxidative stress were also found to be upregulated in Reeler mice by using different techniques such as ELLA assay, microchip array or real-time PCR. Taken together, these findings suggest that a dysfunctional Reelin signaling enables the expression of key pathological features which are classically associated with AD neurodegenerative processes. Thus, this work suggests that Reeler mouse might be a suitable animal model to study not only the pathophysiology of developmental processes but also several neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD and Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD), characterized by accumulation of APP and/or Aß1-42, NH2htau and inflammatory markers.

Therapeutic Potential of Targeting Mitochondria for Alzheimer's Disease Treatment.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disease, is characterized by memory and cognitive impairment and by the accumulation in the brain of abnormal proteins, more precisely beta-amyloid (ß-amyloid or Aß) and Tau proteins. Studies aimed at researching pharmacological treatments against AD have focused precisely on molecules capable, in one way or another, of preventing/eliminating the accumulations of the aforementioned proteins. Unfortunately, more than 100 years after the discovery of the disease, there is still no effective therapy in modifying the biology behind AD and nipping the disease in the bud. This state of affairs has made neuroscientists suspicious, so much so that for several years the idea has gained ground that AD is not a direct neuropathological consequence taking place downstream of the deposition of the two toxic proteins, but rather a multifactorial disease, including mitochondrial dysfunction as an early event in the pathogenesis of AD, occurring even before clinical symptoms. This is the reason why the search for pharmacological agents capable of normalizing the functioning of these subcellular organelles of vital importance for nerve cells is certainly to be considered a promising approach to the design of effective neuroprotective drugs aimed at preserving this organelle to arrest or delay the progression of the disease. Here, our intent is to provide an updated overview of the mitochondrial alterations related to this disorder and of the therapeutic strategies (both natural and synthetic) targeting mitochondrial dysfunction.

Dysfunction of Mitochondria in Alzheimer's Disease: ANT and VDAC Interact with Toxic Proteins and Aid to Determine the Fate of Brain Cells.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), certainly the most widespread proteinopathy, has as classical neuropathological hallmarks, two groups of protein aggregates: senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. However, the research interest is rapidly gaining ground in a better understanding of other pathological features, first, of all the mitochondrial dysfunctions. Several pieces of evidence support the hypothesis that abnormal mitochondrial function may trigger aberrant processing of amyloid progenitor protein or tau and thus neurodegeneration. Here, our aim is to emphasize the role played by two 'bioenergetic' proteins inserted in the mitochondrial membranes, inner and outer, respectively, that is, the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) and the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), in the progression of AD. To perform this, we will magnify the ANT and VDAC defects, which are measurable hallmarks of mitochondrial dysfunction, and collect all the existing information on their interaction with toxic Alzheimer's proteins. The pathological convergence of tau and amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) on mitochondria may finally explain why the therapeutic strategies used against the toxic forms of Aß or tau have not given promising results separately. Furthermore, the crucial role of ANT-1 and VDAC impairment in the onset/progression of AD opens a window for new therapeutic strategies aimed at preserving/improving mitochondrial function, which is suspected to be the driving force leading to plaque and tangle deposition in AD.

Tau Cleavage Contributes to Cognitive Dysfunction in Strepto-Zotocin-Induced Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease (sAD) Mouse Model.

Tau cleavage plays a crucial role in the onset and progression of Alzheimer's Disease (AD), a widespread neurodegenerative disease whose incidence is expected to increase in the next years. While genetic and familial forms of AD (fAD) occurring early in life represent less than 1%, the sporadic and late-onset ones (sAD) are the most common, with ageing being an important risk factor. Intracerebroventricular (ICV) infusion of streptozotocin (STZ)-a compound used in the systemic induction of diabetes due to its ability to damage the pancreatic ß cells and to induce insulin resistance-mimics in rodents several behavioral, molecular and histopathological hallmarks of sAD, including memory/learning disturbance, amyloid-ß (Aß) accumulation, tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress and brain glucose hypometabolism. We have demonstrated that pathological truncation of tau at its N-terminal domain occurs into hippocampi from two well-established transgenic lines of fAD animal models, such as Tg2576 and 3xTg mice, and that it's in vivo neutralization via intravenous (i.v.) administration of the cleavage-specific anti-tau 12A12 monoclonal antibody (mAb) is strongly neuroprotective. Here, we report the therapeutic efficacy of 12A12mAb in STZ-infused mice after 14 days (short-term immunization, STIR) and 21 days (long-term immunization regimen, LTIR) of i.v. delivery. A virtually complete recovery was detected after three weeks of 12A12mAb immunization in both novel object recognition test (NORT) and object place recognition task (OPRT). Consistently, three weeks of this immunization regimen relieved in hippocampi from ICV-STZ mice the AD-like up-regulation of amyloid precursor protein (APP), the tau hyperphosphorylation and neuroinflammation, likely due to modulation of the PI3K/AKT/GSK3-ß axis and the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activities. Cerebral oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, synaptic and histological alterations occurring in STZ-infused mice were also strongly attenuated by 12A12mAb delivery. These results further strengthen the causal role of N-terminal tau cleavage in AD pathogenesis and indicate that its specific neutralization by non-invasive administration of 12A12mAb can be a therapeutic option for both fAD and sAD patients, as well as for those showing type 2 diabetes as a comorbidity.

Nerve Growth Factor-Based Therapy in Alzheimer's Disease and Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-associated neurodegenerative disease which is the most common cause of dementia among the elderly. Imbalance in nerve growth factor (NGF) signaling, metabolism, and/or defect in NGF transport to the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons occurs in patients affected with AD. According to the cholinergic hypothesis, an early and progressive synaptic and neuronal loss in a vulnerable population of basal forebrain involved in memory and learning processes leads to degeneration of cortical and hippocampal projections followed by cognitive impairment with accumulation of misfolded/aggregated Aß and tau protein. The neuroprotective and regenerative effects of NGF on cholinergic neurons have been largely demonstrated, both in animal models of AD and in living patients. However, the development of this neurotrophin as a disease-modifying therapy in humans is challenged by both delivery limitations (inability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), poor pharmacokinetic profile) and unwanted side effects (pain and weight loss). Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a retinal disease which represents the major cause of blindness in developed countries and shares several clinical and pathological features with AD, including alterations in NGF transduction pathways. Interestingly, nerve fiber layer thinning, degeneration of retinal ganglion cells and changes of vascular parameters, aggregation of Aß and tau protein, and apoptosis also occur in the retina of both AD and AMD. A protective effect of ocular administration of NGF on both photoreceptor and retinal ganglion cell degeneration has been recently described. Besides, the current knowledge about the detection of essential trace metals associated with AD and AMD and their changes depending on the severity of diseases, either systemic or locally detected, further pave the way for a promising diagnostic approach. This review is aimed at describing the employment of NGF as a common therapeutic approach to AMD and AD and the diagnostic power of detection of essential trace metals associated with both diseases. The multiple approaches employed to allow a sustained release/targeting of NGF to the brain and its neurosensorial ocular extensions will be also discussed, highlighting innovative technologies and future translational prospects.

Systemic delivery of a specific antibody targeting the pathological N-terminal truncated tau peptide reduces retinal degeneration in a mouse model of Alzheimer's Disease.

Retina and optic nerve are sites of extra-cerebral manifestations of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Amyloid-ß (Aß) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein are detected in eyes from AD patients and transgenic animals in correlation with inflammation, reduction of synapses, visual deficits, loss of retinal cells and nerve fiber. However, neither the pathological relevance of other post-translational tau modifications-such as truncation with generation of toxic fragments-nor the potential neuroprotective action induced by their in vivo clearance have been investigated in the context of AD retinal degeneration. We have recently developed a monoclonal tau antibody (12A12mAb) which selectively targets the neurotoxic 20-22 kDa NH2-derived peptide generated from pathological truncation at the N-terminal domain of tau without cross-reacting with its full-length normal protein. Previous studies have shown that 12A12mAb, when intravenously (i.v.)-injected into 6-month-old Tg2576 animals, markedly improves their AD-like, behavioural and neuropathological syndrome. By taking advantage of this well-established tau-directed immunization regimen, we found that 12A12mAb administration also exerts a beneficial action on biochemical, morphological and metabolic parameters (i.e. APP/Aß processing, tau hyperphosphorylation, neuroinflammation, synaptic proteins, microtubule stability, mitochondria-based energy production, neuronal death) associated with ocular injury in the AD phenotype. These findings prospect translational implications in the AD field by: (1) showing for the first time that cleavage of tau takes part in several pathological changes occurring in vivo in affected retinas and vitreous bodies and that its deleterious effects are successfully antagonized by administration of the specific 12A12mAb; (2) shedding further insights on the tight connections between neurosensory retina and brain, in particular following tau-based immunotherapy. In our view, the parallel response we detected in this preclinical animal model, both in the eye and in the hippocampus, following i.v. 12A12mAb injection opens novel diagnostic and therapeutic avenues for the clinical management of cerebral and extracerebral AD signs in human beings.

Functional Foods: An Approach to Modulate Molecular Mechanisms of Alzheimer's Disease.

A new epoch is emerging with intense research on nutraceuticals, i.e., "food or food product that provides medical or health benefits including the prevention and treatment of diseases", such as Alzheimer's disease. Nutraceuticals act at different biochemical and metabolic levels and much evidence shows their neuroprotective effects; in particular, they are able to provide protection against mitochondrial damage, oxidative stress, toxicity of ß-amyloid and Tau and cell death. They have been shown to influence the composition of the intestinal microbiota significantly contributing to the discovery that differential microorganisms composition is associated with the formation and aggregation of cerebral toxic proteins. Further, the routes of interaction between epigenetic mechanisms and the microbiota-gut-brain axis have been elucidated, thus establishing a modulatory role of diet-induced epigenetic changes of gut microbiota in shaping the brain. This review examines recent scientific literature addressing the beneficial effects of some natural products for which mechanistic evidence to prevent or slowdown AD are available. Even if the road is still long, the results are already exceptional.

Passive immunotherapy for N-truncated tau ameliorates the cognitive deficits in two mouse Alzheimer's disease models.

Clinical and neuropathological studies have shown that tau pathology better correlates with the severity of dementia than amyloid plaque burden, making tau an attractive target for the cure of Alzheimer's disease. We have explored whether passive immunization with the 12A12 monoclonal antibody (26-36aa of tau protein) could improve the Alzheimer's disease phenotype of two well-established mouse models, Tg2576 and 3xTg mice. 12A12 is a cleavage-specific monoclonal antibody which selectively binds the pathologically relevant neurotoxic NH226-230 fragment (i.e. NH2htau) of tau protein without cross-reacting with its full-length physiological form(s). We found out that intravenous administration of 12A12 monoclonal antibody into symptomatic (6 months old) animals: (i) reaches the hippocampus in its biologically active (antigen-binding competent) form and successfully neutralizes its target; (ii) reduces both pathological tau and amyloid precursor protein/amyloidß metabolisms involved in early disease-associated synaptic deterioration; (iii) improves episodic-like type of learning/memory skills in hippocampal-based novel object recognition and object place recognition behavioural tasks; (iv) restores the specific up-regulation of the activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein involved in consolidation of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity; (v) relieves the loss of dendritic spine connectivity in pyramidal hippocampal CA1 neurons; (vi) rescues the Alzheimer's disease-related electrophysiological deficits in hippocampal long-term potentiation at the CA3-CA1 synapses; and (vii) mitigates the neuroinflammatory response (reactive gliosis). These findings indicate that the 20-22 kDa NH2-terminal tau fragment is crucial target for Alzheimer's disease therapy and prospect immunotherapy with 12A12 monoclonal antibody as safe (normal tau-preserving), beneficial approach in contrasting the early Amyloidß-dependent and independent neuropathological and cognitive alterations in affected subjects.

Transient upregulation of translational efficiency in prodromal and early symptomatic Tg2576 mice contributes to Aß pathology.

TG2576 mice show highest levels of the full length mutant Swedish Human Amyloid Precursor Protein (APPKM670/671LN) during prodromal and early sympotomatic stages. Interestingly, this occurs in association with the unbalanced expression of two of its RNA Binding proteins (RBPs) opposite regulators, the Fragile-X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP) and the heteronuclear Ribonucleoprotein C (hnRNP C). Whether an augmentation in overall translational efficiency also contributes to the elevation of APP levels at those early developmental stages is currently unknown. We investigated this possibility by performing a longitudinal polyribosome profiling analysis of APP mRNA and protein in total hippocampal extracts from Tg2576 mice. Results showed that protein polysomal signals were exclusively detected in pre-symptomatic (1 months) and early symptomatic (3 months) mutant mice. Differently, hAPP mRNA polysomal signals were detected at any age, but a peak of expression was found when mice were 3-month old. Consistent with an early but transient rise of translational efficiency, the phosphorylated form of the initial translation factor eIF2α (p-eIF2α) was reduced at pre-symptomatic and early symptomatic stages, whereas it was increased at the fully symptomatic stage. Pharmacological downregulation of overall translation in early symptomatic mutants was then found to reduce hippocampal levels of full length APP, Aßspecies, BACE1 and Caspase-3, to rescue predominant LTD at hippocampal synapses, to revert dendritic spine loss and memory alterations, and to reinstate memory-induced c-fosactivation. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that overall translation is upregulated in prodromal and early symptomatic Tg2576 mice, and that restoring proper translational control at the onset of AD-like symptoms blocks the emergence of the AD-like phenotype.

Correction to: Impaired adult neurogenesis is an early event in Alzheimer's disease neurodegeneration, mediated by intracellular Aß oligomers.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Impaired adult neurogenesis is an early event in Alzheimer's disease neurodegeneration, mediated by intracellular Aß oligomers.

Alterations of adult neurogenesis have been reported in several Alzheimer's disease (AD) animal models and human brains, while defects in this process at presymptomatic/early stages of AD have not been explored yet. To address this, we investigated potential neurogenesis defects in Tg2576 transgenic mice at 1.5 months of age, a prodromal asymptomatic age in terms of Aß accumulation and neurodegeneration. We observe that Tg2576 resident and SVZ-derived adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) proliferate significantly less. Further, they fail to terminally differentiate into mature neurons due to pathological, tau-mediated, and microtubule hyperstabilization. Olfactory bulb neurogenesis is also strongly reduced, confirming the neurogenic defect in vivo. We find that this phenotype depends on the formation and accumulation of intracellular A-beta oligomers (AßOs) in aNSCs. Indeed, impaired neurogenesis of Tg2576 progenitors is remarkably rescued both in vitro and in vivo by the expression of a conformation-specific anti-AßOs intrabody (scFvA13-KDEL), which selectively interferes with the intracellular generation of AßOs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Altogether, our results demonstrate that SVZ neurogenesis is impaired already at a presymptomatic stage of AD and is caused by endogenously generated intracellular AßOs in the ER of aNSCs. From a translational point of view, impaired SVZ neurogenesis may represent a novel biomarker for AD early diagnosis, in association to other biomarkers. Further, this study validates intracellular Aß oligomers as a promising therapeutic target and prospects anti-AßOs scFvA13-KDEL intrabody as an effective tool for AD treatment.

Dynamic structural determinants underlie the neurotoxicity of the N-terminal tau 26-44 peptide in Alzheimer's disease and other human tauopathies.

The intrinsically disordered tau protein plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other human tauopathies. Abnormal post-translational modifications of tau, such as truncation, are causally involved in the onset/development of these neurodegenerative diseases. In this context, the AD-relevant N-terminal fragment mapping between 26 and 44 amino acids of protein (tau26-44) is interesting, being endowed with potent neurotoxic effects in vitro and in vivo. However, the understanding of the mechanism(s) of tau26-44 toxicity is a challenging task because, similarly to the full-length tau, it does not have a unique 3D structure but exists as dynamic ensemble of conformations. Here we use Atomic Force Spectroscopy, Small Angle X-ray Scattering and Molecular Dynamics simulation to gather structural and functional information on the tau26-44. We highlight the presence, the type and the location of its temporary secondary structures and we unveil the occurrence of relevant transient tertiary conformations that could contribute to tau26-44 toxicity. Data are compared with those obtained on the biologically-inactive, reverse-sequence (tau44-26 peptide) which has the same mass, charge, aminoacidic composition as well as the same overall unfolded character of tau26-44.

The Copper(II)-Assisted Connection between NGF and BDNF by Means of Nerve Growth Factor-Mimicking Short Peptides.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a protein necessary for development and maintenance of the sympathetic and sensory nervous systems. We have previously shown that the NGF N-terminus peptide NGF(1-14) is sufficient to activate TrkA signaling pathways essential for neuronal survival and to induce an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. Cu2+ ions played a critical role in the modulation of the biological activity of NGF(1-14). Using computational, spectroscopic, and biochemical techniques, here we report on the ability of a newly synthesized peptide named d-NGF(1-15), which is the dimeric form of NGF(1-14), to interact with TrkA. We found that d-NGF(1-15) interacts with the TrkA-D5 domain and induces the activation of its signaling pathways. Copper binding to d-NGF(1-15) stabilizes the secondary structure of the peptides, suggesting a strengthening of the noncovalent interactions that allow for the molecular recognition of D5 domain of TrkA and the activation of the signaling pathways. Intriguingly, the signaling cascade induced by the NGF peptides ultimately involves cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) activation and an increase in BDNF protein level, in keeping with our previous result showing an increase of BDNF mRNA. All these promising connections can pave the way for developing interesting novel drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

NGF-Dependent Changes in Ubiquitin Homeostasis Trigger Early Cholinergic Degeneration in Cellular and Animal AD-Model.

Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) depend on nerve growth factor (NGF) for their survival/differentiation and innervate cortical and hippocampal regions involved in memory/learning processes. Cholinergic hypofunction and/or degeneration early occurs at prodromal stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathology in correlation with synaptic damages, cognitive decline and behavioral disability. Alteration(s) in ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is also a pivotal AD hallmark but whether it plays a causative, or only a secondary role, in early synaptic failure associated with disease onset remains unclear. We previously reported that impairment of NGF/TrkA signaling pathway in cholinergic-enriched septo-hippocampal primary neurons triggers "dying-back" degenerative processes which occur prior to cell death in concomitance with loss of specific vesicle trafficking proteins, including synapsin I, SNAP-25 and α-synuclein, and with deficit in presynaptic excitatory neurotransmission. Here, we show that in this in vitro neuronal model: (i) UPS stimulation early occurs following neurotrophin starvation (-1 h up to -6 h); (ii) NGF controls the steady-state levels of these three presynaptic proteins by acting on coordinate mechanism(s) of dynamic ubiquitin-C-terminal hydrolase 1 (UCHL-1)-dependent (mono)ubiquitin turnover and UPS-mediated protein degradation. Importantly, changes in miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents (mEPSCs) frequency detected in -6 h NGF-deprived primary neurons are strongly reverted by acute inhibition of UPS and UCHL-1, indicating that NGF tightly controls in vitro the presynaptic efficacy via ubiquitination-mediated pathway(s). Finally, changes in synaptic ubiquitin and selective reduction of presynaptic markers are also found in vivo in cholinergic nerve terminals from hippocampi of transgenic Tg2576 AD mice, even from presymptomatic stages of neuropathology (1-month-old). By demonstrating a crucial role of UPS in the dysregulation of NGF/TrkA signaling on properties of cholinergic synapses, these findings from two well-established cellular and animal AD models provide novel therapeutic targets to contrast early cognitive and synaptic dysfunction associated to selective degeneration of BFCNs occurring in incipient early/middle-stage of disease.