Chronic pain enhances excitability of corticotropin-releasing factor-expressing neurons in the oval part of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

We previously reported that enhanced corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) caused the aversive responses during acute pain and suppressed the brain reward system during chronic pain. However, it remains to be examined whether chronic pain alters the excitability of CRF neurons in the BNST. In this study we investigated the chronic pain-induced changes in excitability of CRF-expressing neurons in the oval part of the BNST (ovBNSTCRF neurons) by whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology. CRF-Cre; Ai14 mice were used to visualize CRF neurons by tdTomato. Electrophysiological recordings from brain slices prepared from a mouse model of neuropathic pain revealed that rheobase and firing threshold were significantly decreased in the chronic pain group compared with the sham-operated control group. Firing rate of the chronic pain group was higher than that of the control group. These data indicate that chronic pain elevated neuronal excitability of ovBNSTCRF neurons.

Chronic pain-induced neuronal plasticity in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis causes maladaptive anxiety.

The comorbidity of chronic pain and mental dysfunctions such as depression and anxiety disorders has long been recognized, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, using a mouse model of neuropathic pain, we demonstrated neuronal plasticity in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), which plays a critical role in chronic pain-induced maladaptive anxiety. Electrophysiology demonstrated that chronic pain increased inhibitory inputs to lateral hypothalamus (LH)-projecting BNST neurons. Chemogenetic manipulation revealed that sustained suppression of LH-projecting BNST neurons played a crucial role in chronic pain-induced anxiety. Furthermore, using a molecular genetic approach, we demonstrated that chronic pain elevated the excitability of a specific subpopulation of BNST neurons, which express cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART). The elevated excitability of CART-positive neurons caused the increased inhibitory inputs to LH-projecting BNST neurons, thereby inducing anxiety-like behavior. These findings shed light on how chronic pain induces psychiatric disorders, characterized by maladaptive anxiety.

Estrogen signaling modulates behavioral selection toward pups and amygdalohippocampal area in the rhomboid nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis circuit.

Gonadal steroid hormone influences behavioral choice of adult animals toward pups, parental or aggressive. We previously reported that long-term administration of 17ß-estradiol (E2) to male mice during sexual maturation induces aggressive behavior toward conspecific pups, which is called "infanticide," and significantly enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission in the rhomboid nucleus of bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTrh), which is an important brain region for infanticide. However, it is unclear how estrogen receptor-dependent signaling after sexual maturity regulates neural circuits including the BSTrh. Here we revealed that E2 administration to gonadectomized mice in adulthood elicited infanticidal behavior and enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission in the BSTrh by increasing the probability of glutamate release from the presynaptic terminalis. Next, we performed whole-brain mapping of E2-sensitive brain regions projecting to the BSTrh and found that amygdalohippocampal area (AHi) neurons that project to the BSTrh densely express estrogen receptor 1 (Esr1). Moreover, E2 treatment enhanced synaptic connectivity in the AHi-BSTrh pathway. Together, these results suggest that reinforcement of excitatory inputs from AHi neurons into the BSTrh by estrogen receptor-dependent signaling may contribute to the expression of infanticide.

[Practices and challenges of online laboratory work in pharmacology].

Laboratory work is an essential part of natural science education because it provides students with a valuable opportunity to experience practical scientific research firsthand. In laboratory work in pharmacology, students generally learn about biological mechanisms and drug action mechanisms by analyzing drug actions using laboratory animals. Actual experience with hands and eyes is an important factor in the laboratory work. Under the COVID-19 epidemic, however, we were forced to conduct the laboratory work online. For the laboratory work using isolated organs, we used simulation software, in which students can examine effects of a range of drugs on the smooth muscle within the guinea pig ileum. For the behavioral observation practice, we showed the video of the experiments conducted by the instructors beforehand to the students, and asked them to observe and analyze the behavior. In this review, we will share our challenges to online laboratory work.

Diverse intracellular signaling pathways mediate the effects of neurotensin on the excitability of type II neurons in the rat dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

We examined the effects of neurotensin (NTS) on the excitability of type II neurons in the rat dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dlBNST) using whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology. Bath-application of NTS depolarized type II dlBNST neurons. Analyses of the steady-state I-V relationships implied that the depolarizing effect of NTS is due to potassium conductance blocking. The depolarizing effect of NTS was abolished in the presence of a PLC inhibitor, but not affected by a protein kinase C inhibitor. In the presence of a CaMKII inhibitor, NTS showed depolarizing effects via the increase in non-selective cation conductance in addition to the decrease in potassium conductance. Unexpectedly, in the presence of a PKA inhibitor, NTS hyperpolarized type II dlBNST neurons. These results reveal that diverse signaling pathways mediate the effects of NTS on the excitability of type II dlBNST neurons. The elevation of intracellular Ca2+ levels via the inositol phosphate-mediated signaling activates both Ca2+-dependent adenylate cyclase (AC) and CaMKII. Activation of the AC-cAMP-PKA pathway exerts depolarizing effects on type II dlBNST neurons by decreasing potassium conductance and increasing non-selective cation conductance, whereas activation of the CaMKII pathway exerts hyperpolarizing effects on dlBNST neurons by decreasing non-selective cation conductance.

Inhibitory synaptic transmissions to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis neurons projecting to the ventral tegmental area are enhanced in rats exposed to chronic mild stress.

The comorbidities of depression and chronic pain have long been recognized in the clinic, and several preclinical studies have demonstrated depression-like behaviors in animal models of chronic pain. These findings suggest a common neuronal basis for depression and chronic pain. Recently, we reported that the mesolimbic dopaminergic system was tonically suppressed during chronic pain by enhanced inhibitory synaptic inputs to neurons projecting from the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dlBNST) to the ventral tegmental area (VTA), suggesting that tonic suppression of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system by this neuroplastic change may be involved in chronic pain-induced depression-like behaviors. In this study, we hypothesized that inhibitory synaptic inputs to VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons are also enhanced in animal models of depression, thereby suppressing the mesolimbic dopaminergic system. To test this hypothesis, we performed whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology using brain slices prepared from rats exposed to chronic mild stress (CMS), a widely used animal model of depression. The results showed a significant enhancement in the frequency of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents in VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons in the CMS group compared with the no stress group. The findings revealed enhanced inhibitory synaptic inputs to VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons in this rat model of depression, suggesting that this neuroplastic change is a neuronal mechanism common to depression and chronic pain that causes dysfunction of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system, thereby inducing depression-like behaviors.

Noradrenaline enhances the excitatory effects of dopamine on medial prefrontal cortex pyramidal neurons in rats.

AIM: Our previous studies showed that exposure to acute restraint stress enhanced cocaine-induced conditioned place preference (cocaine-CPP) and suggested the possibility that co-activation of adrenergic transmission boosts the increase in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) neuronal activity by the activation of dopaminergic transmission. To examine this possibility, the effects of the co-treatment with dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NA) on mPFC neurons were compared with those of treatment with DA alone using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. METHODS: The effects of DA alone and a mixture of DA and NA on the membrane potentials and spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) were examined by electrophysiological recordings of mPFC pyramidal neurons in brain slices of male Sprague Dawley rats. Extracellular DA and NA levels in the mPFC during and after restraint stress exposure were also examined by in vivo microdialysis. RESULTS: Dopamine significantly produced depolarizing effects on mPFC neurons and tended to increase sEPSC frequency. Co-administration of NA with DA produced stronger depolarizing effects and significantly increased sEPSC frequency. The findings suggest that the additional depolarizing effect of NA on DA-responsive neurons, rather than the excitation of DA-nonresponsive neurons by NA, contributes to the stronger effect of co-treatment of NA with DA. CONCLUSION: The present study suggests that NA released by restraint stress exposure cooperates with DA to stimulate DA-responsive neurons in the mPFC, thereby causing the stress-induced enhancement of cocaine-CPP.

Disappearance of the inhibitory effect of neuropeptide Y within the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in rats with chronic pain.

We recently showed that the mesolimbic dopaminergic system was tonically suppressed during chronic pain by enhanced corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) signaling within the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dlBNST), and that inhibition of intra-dlBNST CRF signaling restored the mesolimbic dopaminergic system function. Specifically, bilateral intra-dlBNST injections of the CRF type 1 receptor antagonist NBI27914 increased intra-nucleus accumbens dopamine release and induced reward-related behaviors in rats with chronic pain. Here, we used a conditioned place preference (CPP) test to explore whether intra-dlBNST injections of neuropeptide Y (NPY) restored the mesolimbic reward system function in chronic pain rats, because we previously showed that NPY had an effect opposite to that of CRF in dlBNST neurons. Specifically, CRF depolarized type II dlBNST neurons whereas NPY hyperpolarized them. However, unexpectedly, intra-dlBNST NPY injections had no effect on CPP test outcomes. Then, we compared the effects of NPY on the membrane potentials of type II dlBNST neurons of sham-operated control rats and those of chronic pain animals. Whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology revealed that NPY hyperpolarized type II dlBNST neurons in the sham-operated group. By contrast, in the chronic pain group, NPY did not hyperpolarize, but rather depolarized, type II dlBNST neurons. These results indicate that NPY no longer hyperpolarizes type II dlBNST neurons in rats with chronic pain, therefore it does not reverse the excitatory effects of CRF. This may be why intra-dlBNST injections of NPY into chronic pain rats did not exhibit a rewarding effect in the CPP test, whereas intra-dlBNST injections of NBI27914 did. This is the first study to demonstrate a chronic pain-induced neuroplastic change in NPY signaling in the dlBNST. Such a change may be involved in the dysfunction of the mesolimbic reward system under the chronic pain condition.

Amygdalohippocampal Area Neurons That Project to the Preoptic Area Mediate Infant-Directed Attack in Male Mice.

Male animals may show alternative behaviors toward infants: attack or parenting. These behaviors are triggered by pup stimuli under the influence of the internal state, including the hormonal environment and/or social experiences. Converging data suggest that the medial preoptic area (MPOA) contributes to the behavioral selection toward the pup. However, the neural mechanisms underlying how integrated stimuli affect the MPOA-dependent behavioral selection remain unclear. Here we focus on the amygdalohippocampal area (AHi) that projects to MPOA and expresses oxytocin receptor, a hormone receptor mediating social behavior toward pups. We describe the activation of MPOA-projection AHi neurons in male mice by social contact with pups. Input mapping using the TRIO method reveals that MPOA-projection AHi neurons receive prominent inputs from several regions, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and olfactory cortex. Electrophysiological and histologic analysis demonstrates that oxytocin modulates inhibitory synaptic responses on MPOA-projection AHi neurons. In addition, AHi forms the excitatory monosynapse to MPOA, and pharmacological activation of MPOA-projection AHi neurons enhances only aggressive behavior, but not parental behavior. Interestingly, this promoted behavior was related to social experience in male mice. Collectively, our results identified a presynaptic partner of MPOA that can integrate sensory input and hormonal state, and trigger pup-directed aggression.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The medial preoptic area (MPOA) plays critical roles in parental behavior, such as motor control, motivation, and social interaction. The MPOA projects to multiple brain regions, and these projections contribute to several neural controls in parental behavior. In contrast, how inputs to MPOA are regulated by social and environmental information is poorly understood. In this study, we focus on the amygdalohippocampal area (AHi) that connects to MPOA and expresses oxytocin receptor. We demonstrate the disruption of the expression of parental behavior triggered by the activation of MPOA-projection AHi neurons. This behavior may be regulated not only by oxytocin but also by neural input from several regions.

Tonic Suppression of the Mesolimbic Dopaminergic System by Enhanced Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Signaling Within the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis in Chronic Pain Model Rats.

Although dysfunction of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system has been implicated in chronic pain, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. We hypothesized that increased inhibitory inputs to the neuronal pathway from the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dlBNST) to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) during chronic pain may induce tonic suppression of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system. To test this hypothesis, male Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to spinal nerve ligation to induce neuropathic pain and then spontaneous IPSCs (sIPSCs) were measured in this neuronal pathway. Whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology of brain slices containing the dlBNST revealed that the frequency of sIPSCs significantly increased in VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons 4 weeks after surgery. Next, the role of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling within the dlBNST in the increased sIPSCs was examined. CRF increased the frequency of sIPSCs in VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons in sham-operated controls, but not in chronic pain rats. By contrast, NBI27914, a CRF type 1 receptor antagonist, decreased the frequency of sIPSCs in VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons in the chronic pain rats, but not in the control animals. In addition, histological analyses revealed the increased expression of CRF mRNA in the dlBNST. Finally, bilateral injections of NBI27914 into the dlBNST of chronic pain rats activated mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons and induced conditioned place preference. Together, these results suggest that the mesolimbic dopaminergic system is tonically suppressed during chronic pain by enhanced CRF signaling within the dlBNST via increased inhibitory inputs to VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The comorbidity of chronic pain and depression has long been recognized. Although dysfunction of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system has been implicated in both chronic pain and depression, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Here, we show that the inhibitory inputs to the neuronal pathway from the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dlBNST) to the ventral tegmental area increase during chronic pain. This neuroplastic change is mediated by enhanced corticotropin-releasing factor signaling within the dlBNST that leads to tonic suppression of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system, which may be involved in the depressive mood and anhedonia under the chronic pain condition.

Effect of gonadal steroid hormone levels during pubertal development on social behavior of adult mice toward pups and synaptic transmission in the rhomboid nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

Sexually immature male mice exhibit parenting behavior toward unfamiliar pups; however, the percentage of males that engage in infanticidal behavior gradually increases with age. We previously reported that excitatory synaptic transmission of the rhomboid nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTrh), a brain region implicated in infanticidal behavior, is reinforced during pubertal development. However, it remains unclear how gonadal steroid hormones mediate this behavioral transition and neural plastic change during pubertal development. Here we revealed that administration of either 17ß-estradiol (E2) or 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to gonadectomized mice during pubertal development induced infanticidal behavior in adulthood (about 7 weeks old). Next, we performed whole-cell patch clamp recording in the BSTrh to study the effect of gonadal steroid hormones on neural synaptic transmission. We found that E2 but not DHT administration during pubertal development considerably enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission in the BSTrh by increasing the probability of excitatory neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic terminalis. These data suggest that reinforcement of excitatory synaptic transmission by estrogen-receptor-dependent signaling in the BSTrh during puberty may contribute to the development of infanticidal behavior.

Activation of the neural pathway from the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the central amygdala induces anxiety-like behaviors.

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and the central amygdala (CeA) comprise a forebrain unit that has been described as the "extended amygdala". These two nuclei send dense projections to each other and have been implicated in the regulation of negative emotional states, including anxiety and fear. The present study employed an optogenetic technique to examine whether stimulation of CeA-projecting dorsolateral BNST (dlBNST) neuron terminals would influence anxiety-like behaviors in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Photostimulation of CeA-projecting dlBNST neuron terminals produced anxiogenic effects in an elevated plus maze test. This finding is inconsistent with previous reports showing that optogenetic stimulation of BNST neurons projecting to the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) produces anxiolytic rather than anxiogenic effects. To address this issue, electrophysiological analyses were conducted to characterize dlBNST neurons projecting to the CeA, LH, and VTA. dlBNST neurons can be electrophysiologically classified into three distinct cell types (types I-III) according to their responses to depolarizing and hyperpolarizing current injections. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings revealed that more than 60% of the CeA-projecting dlBNST neurons were type II, whereas approximately 80% of the LH- and VTA-projecting dlBNST neurons were type III. These electrophysiological results will help elucidate the mechanisms underlying the heterogeneity of BNST neurons during the regulation of anxiety-like behaviors.

Pregabalin induces conditioned place preference in the rat during the early, but not late, stage of neuropathic pain.

The present study aimed to examine the rewarding effects of pain relief during the early and late stages of neuropathic pain using a conditioned place preference (CPP) test. Animal models of neuropathic pain were prepared by spinal nerve ligation in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Intraperitoneal and intrathecal injections of pregabalin (300 mg/kg and 100 µg/10 µL, respectively) suppressed allodynia in the von Frey test both 2 weeks (early stage) and 4 weeks (late stage) after nerve injury. Intraperitoneal and intrathecal injections of pregabalin induced CPP during the early stage of neuropathic pain, suggesting that the CPP test serves as an objective and quantifiable behavioral assay to assess the emotional aspect of pain relief. In contrast with the early stage of neuropathic pain, intraperitoneal or intrathecal injection of pregabalin did not induce CPP during the late stage of neuropathic pain. The extinguishment of the rewarding effects of pregabalin during the late stage of neuropathic pain is likely due to dysfunction of the mesolimbic reward system, although the possibility that neuronal mechanisms other than dysfunction of the mesolimbic reward system are involved in the extinguishment of pregabalin-induced CPP cannot be excluded. We previously reported that not only the dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens induced by intrathecal pregabalin injection but also that induced by sucrose intake were extinguished during the late stage of neuropathic pain. These findings, combined with the results of this study, suggest that pain chronification leads to dysfunction of the mesolimbic reward system.

Activation of the NMDA receptor-neuronal nitric oxide synthase pathway within the ventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis mediates the negative affective component of pain.

Pain consists of sensory and affective components. Although the neuronal mechanisms underlying the sensory component of pain have been studied extensively, those underlying its affective component are only beginning to be elucidated. Previously, we showed the pivotal role of the ventral part of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (vBNST) in the negative affective component of pain. Here, we examined the role of glutamate-nitric oxide (NO) signaling in the affective component of pain in rats using a conditioned place aversion (CPA) test. Intra-vBNST injection of either CNQX (an AMPA receptor antagonist) or MK-801 (an NMDA receptor antagonist) dose-dependently attenuated intraplantar formalin-induced CPA (F-CPA) without reducing nociceptive behaviors. In vivo microdialysis showed that extracellular oxidative NO metabolites (NOx) levels were significantly increased by intraplantar formalin injection. Intra-vBNST injection of NPLA (a selective neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) inhibitor), c-PTIO (a NO scavenger), or ZL006 (a postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95)-nNOS interaction inhibitor) dose-dependently suppressed F-CPA without attenuating nociceptive behaviors. Intra-vBNST injection of NOR3 (a NO donor) produced CPA in a dose-dependent manner in the absence of noxious stimulation. Furthermore, whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology in the vBNST slices revealed that NOR3 induced depolarization of hyperpolarization-activated cation current (Ih)-positive vBNST neurons, which was blocked by the NO scavenger. These results suggest that activation of glutamatergic transmission and subsequent nNOS-derived NO production within the vBNST mediate the negative affective component of pain and that NO-evoked excitation of Ih-positive vBNST neurons may be among the cellular mechanisms underlying pain-induced aversion.

Development-dependent behavioral change toward pups and synaptic transmission in the rhomboid nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

Sexually naïve male C57BL/6 mice aggressively bite unfamiliar pups. This behavior, called infanticide, is considered an adaptive reproductive strategy of males of polygamous species. We recently found that the rhomboid nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTrh) is activated during infanticide and that the bilateral excitotoxic lesions of BSTrh suppress infanticidal behavior. Here we show that 3-week-old male C57BL/6 mice rarely engaged in infanticide and instead, provided parental care toward unfamiliar pups, consistent with observations in rats and other rodent species. This inhibition of infanticide at the periweaning period is functional because the next litter will be born at approximately the time of weaning of the previous litter through maternal postpartum ovulation. However, the mechanism of this age-dependent behavioral change is unknown. Therefore, we performed whole-cell patch clamp recordings of BSTrh and compared evoked neurotransmission in response to the stimulation of the stria terminalis of adult and 3-week-old male mice. Although we were unable to detect a significant difference in the amplitudes of inhibitory neurotransmission, the amplitudes and the paired-pulse ratio of evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents differed between adult and 3-week-old mice. These data suggest that maturation of the synaptic terminal in BSTrh that occurred later than 3 weeks after birth may mediate by the adaptive change from parental to infanticidal behavior in male mice.

Activation of adenylate cyclase-cyclic AMP-protein kinase A signaling by corticotropin-releasing factor within the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis is involved in pain-induced aversion.

Pain is a complex experience involving sensory and affective components. Although the neuronal mechanisms underlying the sensory component of pain have been extensively studied, those underlying its affective component have yet to be elucidated. Recently, we reported that corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF)-induced depolarization in type II neurons within the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dlBNST) is critical for pain-induced aversive responses in rats. However, the intracellular signaling underlying the excitatory effects of CRF and the contribution of such signaling to the induction of pain-induced aversion remain unclear. In the present study, we addressed these issues by conducting whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in rat brain slices and by undertaking behavioral pharmacological analyses. Intracellular perfusion of protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor Rp-cyclic adenosine monophosphorothioate (Rp-cAMPS) or KT5720 suppressed the excitatory effects of CRF in type II dlBNST neurons, and bath application of Rp-cAMPS also suppressed it. In addition, bath application of forskolin, an adenylate cyclase (AC) activator, mimicked the effects of CRF, and pretreatment with forskolin diminished the excitatory effects of CRF. Furthermore, a conditioned place aversion (CPA) test showed that co-administration of Rp-cAMPS with CRF into the dlBNST suppressed CRF-induced CPA. Intra-dlBNST injection of Rp-cAMPS also suppressed pain-induced CPA. These results suggest that CRF increases excitability of type II dlBNST neurons through activation of the AC-cAMP-PKA pathway, thereby causing pain-induced aversive responses. The present findings shed light on the neuronal mechanisms underlying the negative affective component of pain and may provide therapeutic targets for treating intractable pain accompanied by psychological factors.

Distinct preoptic-BST nuclei dissociate paternal and infanticidal behavior in mice.

Paternal behavior is not innate but arises through social experience. After mating and becoming fathers, male mice change their behavior toward pups from infanticide to paternal care. However, the precise brain areas and circuit mechanisms connecting these social behaviors are largely unknown. Here we demonstrated that the c-Fos expression pattern in the four nuclei of the preoptic-bed nuclei of stria terminalis (BST) region could robustly discriminate five kinds of previous social behavior of male mice (parenting, infanticide, mating, inter-male aggression, solitary control). Specifically, neuronal activation in the central part of the medial preoptic area (cMPOA) and rhomboid nucleus of the BST (BSTrh) retroactively detected paternal and infanticidal motivation with more than 95% accuracy. Moreover, cMPOA lesions switched behavior in fathers from paternal to infanticidal, while BSTrh lesions inhibited infanticide in virgin males. The projections from cMPOA to BSTrh were largely GABAergic. Optogenetic or pharmacogenetic activation of cMPOA attenuated infanticide in virgin males. Taken together, this study identifies the preoptic-BST nuclei underlying social motivations in male mice and reveals unexpected complexity in the circuit connecting these nuclei.

Morphology, PKCδ expression, and synaptic responsiveness of different types of rat central lateral amygdala neurons.

Recent findings implicate the central lateral amygdala (CeL) in conditioned fear. Indeed, CeL contains neurons exhibiting positive (CeL-On) or negative (CeL-Off) responses to fear-inducing conditioned stimuli (CSs). In mice, these cells differ in their expression of protein kinase Cδ (PKCδ) and physiological properties. CeL-Off cells are PKCδ(+) and late firing (LF), whereas CeL-On cells are PKCδ(-) and express a regular-spiking (RS) or low-threshold bursting (LTB) phenotype. However, the scarcity of LF cells in rats raises questions about the correspondence between the organization of CeL in mice and rats. Therefore, we studied the PKCδ expression, morphological properties, synaptic responsiveness, and fear conditioning-induced plasticity of rat CeL neurons. No PKCδ(+) LF cells were encountered, but ≈20-25% of RS and LTB neurons were PKCδ(+). Compared with RS neurons, a higher proportion of LTB cells projected to central medial amygdala (CeM) and they had fewer primary dendritic branches, yet the amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) evoked by lateral amygdala (LA) stimulation was similar in RS and LTB cells. In contrast, LA-evoked inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) had a higher amplitude in LTB than RS neurons. Finally, fear conditioning did not induce plasticity at LA inputs to RS or LTB neurons. These findings point to major species differences in the organization of CeL. Since rat LTB cells are subjected to stronger feedforward inhibition, they are more likely to exhibit inhibitory CS responses than RS cells. This is expected to cause a disinhibition of CeM fear output neurons and therefore an increase in fear expression.

The fear circuit revisited: contributions of the basal amygdala nuclei to conditioned fear.

The lateral nucleus (LA) is the input station of the amygdala for information about conditioned stimuli (CSs), whereas the medial sector of the central nucleus (CeM) is the output region that contributes most amygdala projections to brainstem fear effectors. However, there are no direct links between LA and CeM. As the main target of LA and with its strong projection to CeM, the basomedial amygdala (BM) constitutes a good candidate to bridge this gap. Consistent with this notion, it was reported that combined posttraining lesions of the basal nuclei [BM plus basolateral nucleus (BL)] abolish conditioned fear responses, whereas selective BL inactivation does not. Thus, we examined the relative contribution of BM and BL to conditioned fear using unit recordings and inactivation with muscimol microinfusions in rats. Approximately 30% of BM and BL neurons acquired robust responses to auditory CSs predicting footshocks. While most BL cells stopped firing at CS offset, BM responses typically outlasted the CS by ≥ 40 s, paralleling the persistence of conditioned fear after the CS. This observation suggests that BM neurons are not passive relays of rapidly adapting LA inputs about the CS. Surprisingly, independent inactivation of either BM or BL with muscimol did not cause a reduction of conditioned freezing even though an extinction recall deficit was seen the next day. In contrast, combined BL-BM inactivation did. Overall, there results support the notion that the basal nuclei are involved in conditioned fear expression and extinction but that there is functional redundancy between them.