Self-reported access to health care, communicable diseases, violence and perception of legal status among online transgender identifying sex workers in the UK.

OBJECTIVES: Transgender-identifying sex workers (TGISWs) are among the most vulnerable groups but are rarely the focus of health research. Here we evaluated perceived barriers to healthcare access, risky sexual behaviours and exposure to violence in the United Kingdom (UK), based on a survey of all workers on BirchPlace, the main transgender sex commerce website in the UK. STUDY DESIGN: The study design used in the study is an opt-in text-message 12-item questionnaire. METHODS: Telephone contacts were harvested from BirchPlace's website (n = 592 unique and active numbers). The questionnaire was distributed with Qualtrics software, resulting in 53 responses. RESULTS: Our survey revealed significant reported barriers to healthcare access, exposure to risky sexual behaviours and to physical violence. Many transgender sex workers reportedly did not receive a sexual screening, and 28% engaged in condomless penetrative sex within the preceding six months, and 68% engaged in condomless oral sex. 17% responded that they felt unable to access health care they believed medically necessary. Half of the participants suggested their quality of life would be improved by law reform. CONCLUSIONS: TGISWs report experiencing a high level of risky sexual behaviour, physical violence and inadequate healthcare access. Despite a National Health System, additional outreach may be needed to ensure access to services by this population.

HIV testing strategies outside of health care settings in the European Union (EU)/European Economic Area (EEA): a systematic review to inform European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control guidance.

OBJECTIVES: In recent years, new technologies and new approaches to scale up HIV testing have emerged. The objective of this paper was to synthesize the body of recent evidence on strategies aimed at increasing the uptake and coverage of HIV testing outside of health care settings in the European Union (EU)/European Economic Area (EEA). METHODS: Systematic searches to identify studies describing effective HIV testing interventions and barriers to testing were run in five databases (2010-2017) with no language restrictions; the grey literature was searched for similar unpublished studies (2014-2017). Study selection, data extraction and critical appraisal were performed by two independent reviewers following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. RESULTS: Eighty studies on HIV testing in non-health care settings were identified, the majority set in Northern Europe. Testing was implemented in 65 studies, with men who have sex with men the risk group most often targeted. Testing coverage and positivity/reactivity rates varied widely by setting and population group. However, testing in community and outreach settings was effective at reaching people who had never previously been tested and acceptability of HIV testing, particularly rapid testing, outside of health care settings was found to be high. Other interventions aimed to increase HIV testing identified were: campaigns (n = 8), communication technologies (n = 2), education (n = 3) and community networking (n = 1). CONCLUSIONS: This review has identified several strategies with potential to achieve high HIV testing coverage outside of health care settings. However, the geographical spread of studies was limited, and few intervention studies reported before and after data, making it difficult to evaluate the impact of interventions on test coverage.

HIV testing strategies employed in health care settings in the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA): evidence from a systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: Despite the availability of HIV testing guidelines to facilitate prompt diagnosis, late HIV diagnosis remains high across Europe. The study synthesizes recent evidence on HIV testing strategies adopted in health care settings in the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA). METHODS: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed and systematic searches were run in five databases (2010-2017) to identify studies describing HIV testing interventions in health care settings in the EU/EEA. The grey literature was searched for unpublished studies (2014-2017). Two reviewers independently performed study selection, data extraction and critical appraisal. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty intervention and/or feasibility studies on HIV testing in health care settings were identified. Interventions included testing provision (n = 94), campaigns (n = 14) and education and training for staff and patients (n = 20). HIV test coverage achieved through testing provision varied: 2.9-94% in primary care compared to 3.9-66% in emergency departments. HIV test positivity was lower in emergency departments (0-1.3%) and antenatal services (0-0.05%) than in other hospital departments (e.g. inpatients: 0-5.3%). Indicator condition testing programmes increased HIV test coverage from 3.9-72% before to 12-85% after their implementation, with most studies reporting a 10-20% increase. There were 51 feasibility and/or acceptability studies that demonstrated that HIV testing interventions were generally acceptable to patients and providers in health care settings (e.g. general practitioner testing acceptable: 77-93%). CONCLUSIONS: This review has identified several strategies that could be adopted to achieve high HIV testing coverage across a variety of health care settings and populations in the EU/EEA. Very few studies compared the intervention under investigation to a baseline, but, where this was assessed, data suggested increases in testing.

The resurgence of syphilis in high-income countries in the 2000s: a focus on Europe.

Syphilis can cause severe complications and sequelae. Following a decrease in reported cases in European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) and other high-income countries in the 1980s and 1990s as a result of the HIV epidemic and ensuing changes in sexual behaviour, trends started to increase in the 2000s in a number of EU/EEA Member States with higher rates among men and a large proportion of cases reported among men who have sex with men (MSM), particularly HIV-positive MSM. Trends in EU/EEA Member States vary however with some countries continuing to report decreases in the number of reported cases (mostly in the Eastern part of EU/EEA) whereas many Western European countries report increasing numbers of cases. Increasing rates among women, although still relatively low, have been observed in a number of countries leading to concerns around mother-to-child transmission of syphilis and congenital syphilis. Similar overall trends are observed in other high-income countries with the exception of Japan where rates among heterosexual men and women have been rising at alarming levels. Control of syphilis requires use of comprehensive, evidence-based strategies which take into account lessons learned from previous control efforts as well as consideration of biomedical interventions.

The HepHIV 2017 Conference in Malta: joining forces for the earlier diagnosis of HIV and viral hepatitis.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of the article is to provide an overview of the results of the HepHIV 2017 Conference organized by the HIV in Europe initiative under the Maltese EU Presidency in January 2017. METHODS: A thourough review of all conference presentations (oral and poster presentations) was performed to retrieve the key outcomes of the conference. RESULTS: The key result from the conference was a call to action summarising key priorities in HIV and viral hepatitis testing and linkage to care. This included improving monitoring of viral hepatitis and HIV, mixing testing strategies and ensuring policy support. The important contribution and outcomes of EU funded projects OptTEST and EuroHIVEdat was highlighted. CONCLUSION: An integrated approach to earlier testing and linkage to care across diseases is needed in Europe and the HepHIV conferences create an important forum to reach this aim.

Current prevalence of chronic hepatitis B and C virus infection in the general population, blood donors and pregnant women in the EU/EEA: a systematic review.

This systematic review aimed at estimating chronic hepatitis B (HBV) and C virus (HCV) prevalence in the European Union (EU) and Economic Area (EEA) countries in the general population, blood donors and pregnant women. We searched PubMed©, Embase© and Cochrane Library databases for reports on HBV and HCV prevalence in the general population and pregnant women in EU/EEA countries published between 2005 and 2015. Council of Europe data were used for HBV and HCV blood donor prevalence. HBV general population estimates were available for 13 countries, ranging from 0·1% to 4·4%. HCV general population estimates were available for 13 countries, ranging from 0·1% to 5·9%. Based on general population and blood donor estimates, the overall HBV prevalence in the EU/EEA is estimated to be 0·9% (95% CI 0·7-1·2), corresponding to almost 4·7 million HBsAg-positive cases; and the overall HCV prevalence to be 1·1% (95% CI 0·9-1·4), equalling 5·6 million anti-HCV-positive cases. We found wide variation in HCV and HBV prevalence across EU/EEA countries for which estimates were available, as well as variability between groups often considered a proxy for the general population. Prevalence estimates are essential to inform policymaking and public health practice. Comparing to other regions globally, HBV and HCV prevalence in the EU/EEA is low.

Gender violence, poverty and HIV infection risk among persons engaged in the sex industry: cross-national analysis of the political economy of sex markets in 30 European and Central Asian countries.

OBJECTIVES: Persons engaged in the sex industry are at greater risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections than the general population. One major factor is exposure to higher levels of risky sexual activity. Expanding condom use is a critical prevention strategy, but this requires negotiation with those buying sex, which takes place in the context of cultural and economic constraints. Impoverished individuals who fear violence are more likely to forego condoms. METHODS: Here we tested the hypotheses that poverty and fear of violence are two structural drivers of HIV infection risk in the sex industry. Using data from the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control and the World Bank for 30 countries, we evaluated poverty, measured using the average income per day per person in the bottom 40% of the income distribution, and gender violence, measured using homicide rates in women and the proportion of women exposed to violence in the last 12 months and/or since age 16 years. RESULTS: We found that HIV prevalence among those in the sex industry was higher in countries where there were greater female homicide rates (ß = 0.86; P = 0.018) and there was some evidence that self-reported exposure to violence was also associated with higher HIV prevalence (ß = 1.37; P = 0.043). Conversely, HIV prevalence was lower in countries where average incomes among the poorest were greater (ß = -1.05; P = 0.046). CONCLUSIONS: Our results are consistent with the theory that reducing poverty and exposure to violence may help reduce HIV infection risk among persons engaged in the sex industry.

HIV continuum of care in Europe and Central Asia.

OBJECTIVES: The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) supports countries to monitor progress in their response to the HIV epidemic. In line with these monitoring responsibilities, we assess how, and to what extent, the continuum of care is being measured across countries. METHODS: The ECDC sent out questionnaires to 55 countries in Europe and Central Asia in 2014. Nominated country representatives were questioned on how they defined and measured six elements of the continuum. We present our results using three previously described frameworks [breakpoints; Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) 90-90-90 targets; diagnosis and treatment quadrant]. RESULTS: Forty countries provided data for at least one element of the continuum. Countries reported most frequently on the number of people diagnosed with HIV infection (37; 93%), and on the number in receipt of antiretroviral therapy (ART) (35; 88%). There was little consensus across countries in their approach to defining linkage to, and retention in, care. The most common breakpoint (>19% reduction between two adjacent elements) related to the estimated number of people living with HIV who were diagnosed (18 of 23; 78%). CONCLUSIONS: We present continuum data from multiple countries that provide both a snapshot of care provision and a baseline against which changes over time in care provision across Europe and Central Asia may be measured. To better inform HIV testing and treatment programmes, standard data collection approaches and definitions across the HIV continuum of care are needed. If countries wish to ensure an unbroken HIV continuum of care, people living with HIV need to be diagnosed promptly, and ART needs to be offered to all those diagnosed.

Enhanced surveillance of hepatitis C in the EU, 2006 - 2012.

Hepatitis C is a major public health issue across Europe, and with rapidly evolving developments in the therapeutic field, it is essential that countries have access to epidemiological information. In 2011, The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) introduced enhanced surveillance of hepatitis C across EU/EEA countries collecting routine data from national notification systems using standardized case definitions. Data collected from 2006 to 2012 indicate a high burden of disease with great variation in reported cases between countries. Most cases occurred among young adult males, and although injecting drug use dominated across all cases, there were increasing numbers of acute cases reported among men who have sex with men. Geographically, the reported data were the inverse of what may be expected based on findings from recent prevalence surveys in a number of EU/EEA countries. Unexpectedly, low figures were reported through notification systems in some southern and eastern European countries where prevalence is known from surveys to be high. This discrepancy highlights the limitation of surveillance data for a disease such as hepatitis C which is largely asymptomatic until a late stage, so that notifications reflect testing practices rather than real occurrence of disease. Further improvements to the quality of the data are important to increase data utility. Improved understanding of national testing practices is necessary to allow a better interpretation of surveillance results. Additional epidemiological studies alongside routine case-based reporting in notification systems should also be considered to better estimate the true disease burden across Europe.

Enhanced surveillance of hepatitis B in the EU, 2006-2012.

Robust epidemiological information on hepatitis B is important to help countries plan prevention and control programmes and evaluate public health responses to control transmission. European Centre Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) introduced enhanced surveillance of hepatitis B at EU/EEA level in 2011 to collate routine surveillance data from national notification systems. Analysis of the data collected for the years 2006-2012 shows a high burden of hepatitis B across Europe with 110 005 cases reported over the period with the majority of these cases being chronic infections. The most commonly reported routes of transmission in acute cases included heterosexual transmission, nosocomial transmission, injecting drug use and transmission among men who have sex with men. Mother-to-child transmission was the most common route reported for chronic cases. Trends over time were difficult to analyse as national reporting practices changed, but data suggest a downward trend in acute cases, which probably reflects the impact of the widespread implementation of vaccination programmes. Notifications of chronic infection varied across countries and showed discrepancy with the expected results based on findings from recent prevalence surveys. This indicated that notifications mirror local testing practices rather than real occurrence of disease. Improving the quality of the data and considering reported notifications alongside other data sources, such as local screening practices and vaccination policies, will improve the utility of the data.

Ten years after Dublin: principal trends in HIV surveillance in the EU/EEA, 2004 to 2013.

In 2004, the 31 countries of the European Union and European Economic Area (EU/EEA) adopted the Dublin Declaration on Partnership to Fight HIV/AIDS in Europe and Central Asia. In 2013, 29,157 persons were diagnosed with HIV in 30 EU/EEA countries (adjusted rate: 6.2/100,000); new diagnoses have increased by 33% since 2004 among men who have sex with men and late diagnosis remains common. Evidence-based prevention measures and efforts towards earlier testing need to be expanded.

Influenza season 2012-2013 in Europe: moderate intensity, mixed (sub)types.

This paper summarizes influenza activity in the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) in 2012-2013. The influenza season 2012-2013 in Europe lasted from early December to late April. Overall the severity of the season could be described as moderate, based on the ILI/ARI consultation rates and the percentage of sentinel specimens positive for influenza compared to previous seasons. Both influenza A and B viruses circulating accounted for 47% and 53% of positive sentinel specimens, respectively, with both A(H1) and A(H3) varying for dominance. Compared to outpatients, the proportion of laboratory-confirmed influenza hospitalized cases infected by A(H1N1)pdm09 was significantly higher in middle-aged patients (33% vs. 17%, χ 2 = 66·6, P < 0·01). Despite a relatively good match between vaccine and circulating strains, vaccine effectiveness was estimated to be moderate.

Surveillance of human immunodeficiency virus suggests that younger men who have sex with men are at higher risk of infection, European Union, 2003 to 2012.

In 2012, newly reported human immunodeficiency virus diagnoses in the European Union /European Economic Area remained stable at around 30,000 cases. Since 2003, cases in men who have sex with men (MSM) aged 20 to 29 years-old doubled, while the proportion of late presenters in this group remained stable. Persistent declines occurred among older MSM age groups, particularly that between 30 and 39 years-old. Interventions targeting younger MSM are needed to prevent a resurgence of the epidemic in Europe.

Taking stock of the first 133 MERS coronavirus cases globally--Is the epidemic changing?

Since June 2012, 133 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) cases have been identified in nine countries. Two time periods in 2013 were compared to identify changes in the epidemiology. The case-fatality risk (CFR) is 45% and is decreasing. Men have a higher CFR (52%) and are over-represented among cases. Thirteen out of 14 known primary cases died. The sex-ratio is more balanced in the latter period. Nosocomial transmission was implied in 26% of the cases.

Tuberculosis and HIV co-infection in European Union and European Economic Area countries.

In order to ensure the availability of resources for tuberculosis (TB) and HIV management and control, it is imperative that countries monitor and plan for co-infection in order to identify, treat and prevent TB-HIV co-infection, thereby reducing TB burden and increasing the years of healthy life of people living with HIV. A systematic review was undertaken to determine the burden of TB-HIV infection in the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA). Data on the burden of HIV infection in TB patients and risk factors for TB-HIV co-infection in the EU/EEA were extracted from studies that collected information in 1996 and later, regardless of the year of initiation of data collection, and a narrative synthesis presented. The proportion of HIV-co-infected TB patients varied from 0 to 15%. Western and eastern countries had higher levels and increasing trends of infection over time compared with central EU/EEA countries. Groups at higher risk of TB-HIV co-infection were males, young adults, foreign-born persons, the homeless, injecting drug users and prisoners. Further research is needed into the burden and associated risk factors of co-infection in Europe, to help plan effective control measures. Increased HIV testing of TB patients and targeted and informed strategies for control and prevention could help curb the co-infection epidemic.

The burden of TB-HIV in the EU: how much do we know? A survey of surveillance practices and results.

Information on the burden of tuberculosis (TB)-HIV co-infection is critical for the planning and evaluation of TB-HIV control and treatment strategies. This study assessed current practices in countries of the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA) for monitoring HIV co-infection in TB surveillance systems, countries' current co-infection burden and associated clinical practice. An online survey was distributed to all national TB surveillance nominated European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control contact points in the EU/EEA. We received 25 responses from 30 countries (83% response rate). Patients' HIV status was collected in 18 out of the 25 TB surveillance systems, usually via clinician reporting (16 out of 18 surveillance systems). Although most countries recommended routine testing of TB patients for HIV, the proportion actually tested varied from 5% to 90%. The burden of HIV co-infection was found to be elevated in countries with higher levels of HIV testing and higher prevalence of HIV. We suggest that TB-HIV co-infection be monitored in all EU/EEA countries to facilitate the planning and evaluation of TB-HIV control strategies. Strengthening collaboration between TB and HIV clinicians and surveillance departments, and consideration of patient confidentiality restraints would be advantageous. The level of HIV testing in TB patients is low despite national recommendations and testing should be further promoted and monitored.

Analysis of tuberculosis treatment outcomes in the European Union and European Economic Area: efforts needed towards optimal case management and control.

An analysis of surveillance data was performed to assess treatment outcomes of patients belonging to selected calendar year cohorts. Twenty-two countries in the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA) reported treatment outcome monitoring data for culture-confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) cases reported in 2007. The overall treatment success rate was 73.8% for all culture-confirmed pulmonary cases and 79.5% for new culture-confirmed pulmonary cases. For the cohort of new culture-confirmed TB cases, only three countries achieved the target of 85% success rate. This underachievement appears to be a result of relative high defaulting and unknown outcome information. Case fatality remains high particularly among cases of national origin. This factor appears attributable to advanced age of the national cohort. Treatment outcomes for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis were reported by 15 countries, with a range of 19.8% to 100% treatment success at 24 months. The data underline the urgent need for strengthening treatment outcome monitoring in the EU and EEA in order to ensure an effective programme implementation and case management that will ultimately contribute to TB elimination.