XX sex chromosome complement modulates immune responses to heat-killed Streptococcus pneumoniae immunization in a microbiome-dependent manner.

BACKGROUND: Differences in male vs. female immune responses are well-documented and have significant clinical implications. While the immunomodulatory effects of sex hormones are well established, the contributions of sex chromosome complement (XX vs. XY) and gut microbiome diversity on immune sexual dimorphisms have only recently become appreciated. Here we investigate the individual and collaborative influences of sex chromosome complements and gut microbiota on humoral immune activation. METHODS: Male and female Four Core Genotype (FCG) mice were immunized with heat-killed Streptococcus pneumoniae (HKSP). Humoral immune responses were assessed, and X-linked immune-related gene expression was evaluated to explain the identified XX-dependent phenotype. The functional role of Kdm6a, an X-linked epigenetic regulatory gene of interest, was evaluated ex vivo using mitogen stimulation of B cells. Additional influences of the gut microbiome on sex chromosome-dependent B cell activation was also evaluated by antibiotically depleting gut microbiota prior to HKSP immunization. Reconstitution of the depleted microbiome with short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria tested the impact of SCFAs on XX-dependent immune activation. RESULTS: XX mice exhibited higher HKSP-specific IgM-secreting B cells and plasma cell frequencies than XY mice, regardless of gonadal sex. Although Kdm6a was identified as an X-linked gene overexpressed in XX B cells, inhibition of its enzymatic activity did not affect mitogen-induced plasma cell differentiation or antibody production in a sex chromosome-dependent manner ex vivo. Enhanced humoral responses in XX vs. XY immunized FCG mice were eliminated after microbiome depletion, indicating that the microbiome contributes to the identified XX-dependent immune enhancement. Reconstituting microbiota-depleted mice with select SCFA-producing bacteria enhanced fecal SCFA concentrations and increased humoral responses in XX, but not XY, FCG mice. However, exposure to the SCFA propionate alone did not enhance mitogenic B cell stimulation in ex vivo studies. CONCLUSIONS: FCG mice have been used to assess sex hormone and sex chromosome complement influences on various sexually dimorphic traits. The current study indicates that the gut microbiome impacts humoral responses in an XX-dependent manner, suggesting that the collaborative influence of gut bacteria and other sex-specific factors should be considered when interpreting data aimed at delineating the mechanisms that promote sexual dimorphism.

Male and female immune systems differ in their ability to respond to infectious challenge. While males tend to be more susceptible to infection and produce lower amounts of antibodies in response to vaccination, females are more prone to develop autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Key contributors to these differences include sex hormones, sex chromosome complement (XX in females vs. XY in males), and distinct gut microbial communities capable of regulating immune activation. While each factor has been studied individually, this research underscores the potential for these factors to collaboratively impact immune activation. Here, possession of an XX vs. XY sex chromosome complement was demonstrated to enhance antibody responses to heat-killed Streptococcus pneumoniae vaccination. While attempting to determine the underlying cause of this immune enhancement, the gut microbiome was identified to play a critical role. In the absence of an intact gut microbiome, XX immune activation was reduced to levels similar to those seen in XY sex chromosome complement-possessing mice. Replacement of the depleted gut microbiomes with select SCFA-producing bacterial species enhanced SCFA levels in antibiotic-treated mice and rescued the XX-dependent immune enhancement, suggesting a SCFA-mediated contribution. Further studies are needed to determine exactly how these select bacteria impact immune activation in a sex chromosome complement-dependent manner. Our findings highlight the need to consider the collaborative effects of individual sex-specific factors when attempting to understand immune sex biases, as a better understanding of these interactions will likely pave the way for improving therapeutics and vaccines tailored to both sexes.

Diversity in the HLA-I Recognition of HLA-F Monoclonal Antibodies: HLA-F or HLA-Ib Monospecific, HLA-E or HLA-G Bispecific Antibodies with or without HLA-Ia Reactivity.

Previous investigators have used various anti-HLA-F monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to demonstrate that the tissue distribution of HLA-F is highly restricted. Notably, these mAbs differed in their immunodiagnostic capabilities. Specifically, mAbs Fpep1.1 and FG1 detected HLA-F intracellularly in B cells but not on the cell surface, whereas mAb 3D11 detected HLA-F on the cell surface. The presence of HLA-F on T cells was recognized by mAb FG1 but not by mAb Fpep1.1. mAb 3D11 detected HLA-F on the cell surface of activated B cells and on peripheral blood lymphocytes, but not on the normal cells. Importantly, mAb 3D11 revealed that HLA-F exists as a heavy chain (HC) monomer, rather than as an HC associated with B2m. Although these mAbs are believed to be specific to HLA-F, their monospecificity has not been formally established, which is critical for immunodiagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Previously, we investigated the diversity of HLA class I reactivities of anti-HLA-E mAbs using HLA-I coated multiplex bead assays on a Luminex platform. We reported that more than 80% of the HLA-E mAbs were cross-reactive with other HLA-I molecules, with exceptionally few truly HLA-E-monospecific mAbs. In the present investigation, we generated IgG mAbs against HCs of HLA-F in Balb/C mice and examined the cross-reactivity of anti-HLA-F mAbs with other HLA-I alleles using a multiplex bead assay on the Luminex platform. Beads coated with an array of HLA homo- and heterodimers of different HLA-Ia (HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C) and Ib (HLA-E, HLA-F, and HLA-G) alleles were used to examine the binding of the anti-HLA-F mAbs. Only two mAbs were HLA-F monospecific, and five were HLA-Ib restricted. Several anti-HLA-F mAbs cross-reacted with HLA-E (n = 4), HLA-G (n = 3), HLA-Ia alleles (n = 9), HLA-G and HLA-Ia (n = 2), and HLA-Ib and HLA-Ia (n = 6). This monospecificity and polyreactivity were corroborated by the presence of HLA-F monospecific and HLA-I-shared sequences. This study emphasizes the need to monitor the mono-specificity of HLA-F for reliable immunodiagnostics and passive immunotherapy.

Cell Surface B2m-Free Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Monomers and Dimers: Are They Neo-HLA Class and Proto-HLA?

Cell surface HLA-I molecules (Face-1) consist of a polypeptide heavy chain (HC) with two groove domains (G domain) and one constant domain (C-domain) as well as a light chain, B2-microglobulin (B2m). However, HCs can also independently emerge unfolded on the cell surface without peptides as B2m-free HC monomers (Face-2), B2m-free HC homodimers (Face 3), and B2m-free HC heterodimers (Face-4). The transport of these HLA variants from ER to the cell surface was confirmed by antiviral antibiotics that arrest the release of newly synthesized proteins from the ER. Face-2 occurs at low levels on the normal cell surface of the lung, bronchi, epidermis, esophagus, breast, stomach, ilium, colorectum, gall bladder, urinary bladder, seminal vesicles ovarian epithelia, endometrium, thymus, spleen, and lymphocytes. They are upregulated on immune cells upon activation by proinflammatory cytokines, anti-CD3 antibodies, antibiotics (e.g., ionomycin), phytohemagglutinin, retinoic acid, and phorbol myristate acetate. Their density on the cell surface remains high as long as the cells remain in an activated state. After activation-induced upregulation, the Face-2 molecules undergo homo- and hetero-dimerization (Face-3 and Face-4). Alterations in the redox environment promote dimerization. Heterodimerization can occur among and between the alleles of different haplotypes. The glycosylation of these variants differ from that of Face-1, and they may occur with bound exogenous peptides. Spontaneous arthritis occurs in HLA-B27+ mice lacking B2m (HLA-B27+ B2m-/-) but not in HLA-B27+ B2m+/- mice. The mice with HLA-B27 in Face-2 spontaneous configuration develop symptoms such as changes in nails and joints, hair loss, and swelling in paws, leading to ankyloses. Anti-HC-specific mAbs delay disease development. Some HLA-I polyreactive mAbs (MEM series) used for immunostaining confirm the existence of B2m-free variants in several cancer cells. The upregulation of Face-2 in human cancers occurs concomitantly with the downregulation of intact HLAs (Face-1). The HLA monomeric and dimeric variants interact with inhibitory and activating ligands (e.g., KIR), growth factors, cytokines, and neurotransmitters. Similarities in the amino acid sequences of the HLA-I variants and HLA-II ß-chain suggest that Face-2 could be the progenitor of both HLA classes. These findings may support the recognition of these variants as a neo-HLA class and proto-HLA.

Antibodies for ß2-Microglobulin and the Heavy Chains of HLA-E, HLA-F, and HLA-G Reflect the HLA-Variants on Activated Immune Cells and Phases of Disease Progression in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients under Treatment.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a progressive, inflammatory, autoimmune, symmetrical polyarticular arthritis. It is characterized by synovial infiltration and activation of several types of immune cells, culminating in their apoptosis and antibody generation against "altered" autoantigens. ß2-microglobulin (ß2m)-associated heavy chains (HCs) of HLA antigens, also known as closed conformers (Face-1), undergo "alteration" during activation of immune cells, resulting in ß2m-free structural variants, including monomeric open conformers (Face-2) that are capable of dimerizing as either homodimers (Face-3) or as heterodimers (Face-4). ß2m-free HCs uncover the cryptic epitopes that can elicit antibodies (Abs). We report here the levels of IgM and IgG Abs against both ß2m and HCs of HLA-E, HLA-F, and HLA-G in 74 RA patients receiving immunosuppressive drugs. Anti-ß2m IgM was present in 20 of 74 patients, whereas anti-ß2m IgG was found in only 8 patients. Abs against ß2m would be expected if Abs were generated against ß2m-associated HLA HCs. The majority of patients were devoid of either anti-ß2m IgM or IgG but had Abs against HCs of different HLA-Ib molecules. The paucity of anti-ß2m Abs in this cohort of patients suggests that Abs were developed against ß2m-free HLA HCs, such as Face-2, Face-3, and Face-4. While 63 of 68 patients had IgG Abs against anti-HLA-F HCs, 36 and 50 patients showed IgG Ab reactivity against HLA-E and anti-HLA-G HCs, respectively. Evidently, anti-HLA-F HC Abs are the most predominant anti-HLA-Ib HC IgG Abs in RA patients. The incidence and intensity of Abs against HLA-E, HLA-F, and HLA-G in the normal control group were much higher than those observed in RA patients. Evidently, the lower level of Abs in RA patients points to the impact of the immunosuppressive drugs on these patients. These results underscore the need for further studies to unravel the nature of HLA-F variants on activated immune cells and synoviocytes of RA patients.

Role of HLA-I Structural Variants and the Polyreactive Antibodies They Generate in Immune Homeostasis.

Cell-surface HLA-I molecules consisting of ß2-microglobulin (ß2m) associated heavy chains (HCs), referred to as Face-1, primarily present peptides to CD8+ T-cells. HCs consist of three α-domains, with selected amino acid sequences shared by all alleles of all six isoforms. The cell-surface HLA undergoes changes upon activation by pathological conditions with the expression of ß2m-free HCs (Face-2) resulting in exposure of ß2m-masked sequences shared by almost all alleles and the generation of HLA-polyreactive antibodies (Abs) against them. Face-2 may homodimerize or heterodimerize with the same (Face-3) or different alleles (Face-4) preventing exposure of shared epitopes. Non-allo immunized males naturally carry HLA-polyreactive Abs. The therapeutic intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) purified from plasma of thousands of donors contains HLA-polyreactive Abs, admixed with non-HLA Abs. Purified HLA-polyreactive monoclonal Abs (TFL-006/007) generated in mice after immunizing with Face-2 are documented to be immunoregulatory by suppressing or activating different human lymphocytes, much better than IVIg. Our objectives are (a) to elucidate the complexity of the HLA-I structural variants, and their Abs that bind to both shared and uncommon epitopes on different variants, and (b) to examine the roles of those Abs against HLA-variants in maintaining immune homeostasis. These may enable the development of personalized therapeutic strategies for various pathological conditions.

Four Faces of Cell-Surface HLA Class-I: Their Antigenic and Immunogenic Divergence Generating Novel Targets for Vaccines.

Leukocyte cell-surface HLA-I molecules, involved in antigen presentation of peptides to CD8+ T-cells, consist of a heavy chain (HC) non-covalently linked to ß2-microglobulin (ß2m) (Face-1). The HC amino acid composition varies across all six isoforms of HLA-I, while that of ß2m remains the same. Each HLA-allele differs in one or more amino acid sequences on the HC α1 and α2 helices, while several sequences among the three helices are conserved. HCs without ß2m (Face-2) are also observed on human cells activated by malignancy, viral transformation, and cytokine or chemokine-mediated inflammation. In the absence of ß2m, the monomeric Face-2 exposes immunogenic cryptic sequences on these cells as confirmed by HLA-I monoclonal antibodies (LA45, L31, TFL-006, and TFL-007). Furthermore, such exposure enables dimerization between two Face-2 molecules by SH-linkage, salt linkage, H-bonding, and van der Waal forces. In HLA-B27, the linkage between two heavy chains with cysteines at position of 67 of the amino acid residues was documented. Similarly, several alleles of HLA-A, B, C, E, F and G express cysteine at 67, 101, and 164, and additionally, HLA-G expresses cysteine at position 42. Thus, the monomeric HC (Face-2) can dimerize with another HC of its own allele, as homodimers (Face-3), or with a different HC-allele, as heterodimers (Face-4). The presence of Face-4 is well documented in HLA-F. The post-translational HLA-variants devoid of ß2m may expose several cryptic linear and non-linear conformationally altered sequences to generate novel epitopes. The objective of this review, while unequivocally confirming the post-translational variants of HLA-I, is to highlight the scientific and clinical importance of the four faces of HLA and to prompt further research to elucidate their functions and their interaction with non-HLA molecules during inflammation, infection, malignancy and transplantation. Indeed, these HLA faces may constitute novel targets for passive and active specific immunotherapy and vaccines.

Antibodies to cryptic epitopes on HLA class I and class II heavy chains bound to single antigen beads: Clinically relevant?

Cell surface HLA class I consists of trimers, i.e., alpha - heavy chain, beta - 2 - microglobulin, and a peptide, termed closed conformers (CC) on non-activated lymphocytes. HLA class I and class II may also exist, respectively, as alpha-chain only or alpha and beta - chain only on activated cells termed open conformers (OC). We extend previous studies using an OC-specific monoclonal antibody that demonstrate LABScreen HLA class I and II single antigen beads (SABs) contain a mixture of open and closed conformers. LIFECODES SABs have bound CC only. More HLA class I and class II LABScreen SABs were reactive than LIFECODES SABs due to the presence of OC on LABScreen SABs. We hypothesized that antibody against OC on HLA B antigens would not be detected in cell based cross matches (XMs) with typical lymphocyte targets since anti-HLA OC antibodies would not react with native HLA CC on the cell surface. To test this hypothesis, we performed flow cytometry XM (FCXM) assays with sera of sufficient strength that most laboratories would likely predict positive FCXMs. Sera that reacted strongly with LABScreen SABs (>13,000 MFI) but weakly or not at all with LIFECODES SABs (<1000 MFI) gave negative T and B cell FCXMs. In contrast, sera that reacted with LIFECODES SABs (>13,000 MFI) but weakly with LABScreen SABs (<2100 MFI) exhibited positive FCXMs. Detection of antibodies directed against OC in SAB assays, may lead to inappropriate listing of unacceptable antigens, a decision not to XM or pre-or post - transplant desensitization procedures.