An analysis of the uptake of anti-retroviral treatment among pregnant women in Nigeria from 2015 to 2020.

The percentage of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) positive pregnant women that receive anti-retroviral treatment in Nigeria is low and has been declining. Consequently, 14% of all new infections among children in 2020 occurred in Nigeria. A detailed analysis of available data was undertaken to generate evidence to inform remedial actions. Data from routine service delivery, national surveys and models were analyzed for the six-year period from 2015 to 2020. Numbers and percentages were calculated for antenatal registrations, HIV testing, HIV positive pregnant women and HIV positive pregnant women on antiretroviral treatment. The Mann-Kendall Trend Test was used to determine the presence of time trends when the p-value was less than 0.05. In 2020, only 35% of an estimated 7.8 million pregnant women received antenatal care at a health facility that provided and reported PMTCT services. Within these facilities, the percentage of HIV-positive pregnant women on anti-retroviral treatment from 71% in 2015 to 88% in 2020. However, declining HIV positivity rates at these antenatal clinics and an absence of expansion of PMTCT services to other pregnant women due to cost-efficiency considerations contributed to a progressive decline in national PMTCT coverage rates. To achieve elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV, all pregnant women should be offered a HIV test, all who are HIV positive should be given anti-retroviral treatment, and all PMTCT services should be reported.

Coping strategies of HIV-affected households in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: HIV and negative coping mechanisms have a cyclical relationship. HIV infections may lead to the adoption of coping strategies, which may have undesired, negative consequences. We present data on the various coping mechanisms that HIV-affected households in Ghana resort to. METHODS: We collected data on coping strategies, livelihood activities, food consumption, and asset wealth from a nationally representative sample of 1,745 Ghanaian HIV-affected households. We computed coping strategies index (CSI), effective dependency rate, and asset wealth using previously validated methodologies. RESULTS: Various dehumanizing coping strategies instituted by the HIV-affected households included skipping an entire day's meal (13%), reducing portion sizes (61.3%), harvesting immature crops (7.6%), and begging (5.6%). Two-thirds of the households were asset poor. Asset-poor households had higher CSI than asset-rich households (p <0.001). CSI were also higher among female-headed households and lower where the education level of the household head is higher. Households caring for chronically ill members recorded higher CSI in comparison with their counterparts without the chronically ill (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Institution of degrading measures by HIV-affected households in reaction to threat of food insecurity was prevalent. The three most important coping strategies used by households were limiting portion size (61.3%), reducing number of meals per day (59.5%) and relying on less expensive foods (56.2%). The least employed strategies included household member going begging (5.6%), eating elsewhere (8.7%) and harvesting immature crop (7.6%). Given that household assets, and caring for the chronically ill were associated with high CSI, a policy focusing on helping HIV-affected households gradually build up their asset base, or targeting households caring for chronically ill member(s) with conditional household-level support may be reasonable.

A short history of HIV prevention programs for female sex workers in Ghana: lessons learned over 3 decades.

BACKGROUND: Female sex workers (FSWs) in Ghana have a 10-fold greater risk for acquiring HIV than the general adult population, and they contribute a substantial proportion of the new HIV infections in the country. Although researchers have conducted behavioral and biological surveys, there has been no review of the contextual, programmatic, and epidemiological changes over time. METHODS: The authors conducted a historical review of HIV prevention programs in Ghana. We reviewed the use of different interventions for HIV prevention among FSWs and data from program monitoring and Integrated Biological and Behavioral Surveillance Surveys. In particular, we looked at changes in service access and coverage, the use of HIV testing and counseling services, and the changing prevalence of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. RESULTS: HIV prevention interventions among FSWs increased greatly between 1987 and 2013. Only 72 FSWs were reached in a pilot program in 1987, whereas 40,508 FSWs were reached during a national program in 2013. Annual condom sales and the proportion of FSWs who used HIV testing and counseling services increased significantly, whereas the prevalence of gonorrhea and chlamydia decreased. The representation of FSWs in national HIV strategic plans and guidelines also improved. CONCLUSIONS: Ghana offers an important historical example of an evolving HIV prevention program that-despite periods of inactivity-grew in breadth and coverage over time. The prevention of HIV infections among sex workers has gained momentum in recent years through the efforts of the national government and its partners-a trend that is critically important to Ghana's future.

Critique and lessons learned from using multiple methods to estimate population size of men who have sex with men in Ghana.

Population size estimation of key populations at risk of HIV is essential to every national response. We implemented population size estimation of men who have sex with men (MSM) in Ghana using a three-stage approach within the 2011 Ghana Men's Study: during the study's formative assessment, the larger integrated bio-behavioral surveillance (IBBS) survey; and during the stakeholder meeting. We used six methods in combination within the three-stage approach (literature review, mapping with census, unique object multiplier, service multiplier, wisdom of the crowd, and modified Delphi) to generate size estimates from 16 locations (4 IBBS survey sites and 12 other locations) and used the estimates from the 16 sites to extrapolate the total MSM population size of Ghana. We estimated the number of MSM in Ghana to be 30,579 with a plausible range of 21,645-34,470. The overall estimate suggests that the prevalence of MSM in Ghana is 0.48 % of the adult male population. Lessons learned are shared to inform and improve applications of the methods in future studies.

Using a reporting system to protect the human rights of people living with HIV and key populations: a conceptual framework.

Human rights of people living with HIV (PLHIV) and key populations most affected by HIV are often violated, with negative implications for health outcomes. To facilitate access to justice in Ghana, a consortium of partners developed a web-based discrimination reporting system. The reporting system links the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) to civil society organizations through case reporting, follow-up, and aggregated reported data use. A reporting system can form a critical part of a country's human rights protection network. In Ghana, the combination of a supportive legal framework, an institutional home, and engaged stakeholders have created a favorable environment for developing such a system. Other institutions may learn from Ghana's experience by adapting these lessons.

Development of a Nationally Coordinated Evaluation Plan for the Ghana National Strategy for Key Populations.

OBJECTIVE: Just as HIV prevention programs need to be tailored to the local epidemic, so should evaluations be country-owned and country-led to ensure use of those results in decision making and policy. The objective of this paper is to describe the process undertaken in Ghana to develop a national evaluation plan for the Ghana national strategy for key populations. METHODS: This was a participatory process that involved meetings between the Ghana AIDS Commission (GAC), other partners in Ghana working to prevent HIV among key populations, and MEASURE Evaluation. The process included three two-day, highly structured yet participatory meetings over the course of 12 months during which participants shared information about on-going and planned data and identified research questions and methods. RESULTS: An evaluation plan was prepared to inform stakeholders about which data collection activities need to be prioritized for funding, who would implement the study, the timing of data collection, the research question the data will help answer, and the analysis methods. The plan discusses various methods that can be used including the recommendation for the study design using multiple data sources. It has an evaluation conceptual model, proposed analyses, proposed definition of independent variables, estimated costs for filling data gaps, roles and responsibilities of stakeholders to carry out the plan, and considerations for ethics, data sharing and authorship. CONCLUSION: The experience demonstrates that it is possible to design an evaluation responsive to national strategies and priorities with country leadership, regardless of stakeholders' experiences with evaluations. This process may be replicable elsewhere, where stakeholders want to plan and implement an evaluation of a large-scale program at the national or subnational level that is responsive to national priorities and part of a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation system.

High prevalence of unique recombinant forms of HIV-1 in Ghana: molecular epidemiology from an antiretroviral resistance study.

BACKGROUND: In Ghana, programs to expand antiretroviral access are being implemented. In this context, the dynamic genetic evolution of HIV-1 requires continuous surveillance, particularly when diverse genetic forms co-circulate. METHODS: Phylogenetic and antiretroviral resistance analyses of HIV-1 partial pol sequences from plasma RNA samples from 207 Ghanaian individuals were performed. RESULTS: 66% of infections were CRF02_AG, whereas 25% were unique recombinant forms (URFs). All 52 URFs were characterized by bootscanning. CRF02_AG was parental strain in 87% of URFs, forming recombinants with genetic forms circulating in minor proportions: CRF06_cpx, sub-subtype A3, CRF09_cpx and subtypes G and D. Two triple recombinants (CRF02_AG/A3/CRF06_cpx and CRF02_AG/A3/CRF09_cpx) were identified. Antiretroviral resistance analyses revealed that six individuals, five of which were antiretroviral drug-experienced, harbored mutations conferring high level of resistance to reverse transcriptase inhibitors. No major resistance mutations were identified in the protease, although insertions of one and three amino acids were detected. CONCLUSIONS: The high frequency of URFs detected probably reflects a significant incidence of coinfections or superinfections with diverse viral strains, which increases the genetic complexity of the HIV-1 epidemic in West Africa. Monitoring of HIV-1 drug resistance might provide data on the implications of intersubtype recombination in response to antiretrovirals.

Normal CD4+ T lymphocyte levels in HIV seronegative individuals in the Manya/Yilo Krobo communities in the Eastern region of Ghana.

The goal of this study was to determine the normal levels of CD4+ T lymphocytes in healthy individuals who were HIV seronegative in the Manya and Yilo Krobo Districts of Ghana's Eastern Region. This enabled comparisons with normal CD4 count ranges established by the World Health Organization (WHO). The study population consisted of 249 HIV-seronegative clients from a mobile free Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) service in communities of the two districts during a one-month period. The mean CD4 count of these individuals was 1067 cells/microl with women demonstrating higher baseline CD4 counts than men. This study found a WHO comparable HIV seronegative baseline CD4 count as well as gender-based differences in the CD4 count and CD4/CD8 ratio. Establishment of the adult baseline for the country provides important demographic data and indicates the appropriateness of current global treatment guidelines with regards to CD4 levels in Ghana.