Critical control point-based assessment and intervention of ochratoxin A risk in Angelicae Gigantis Radix production.

Improperly practiced postharvest procedures can pose mycotoxin-related risks during medicinal herb production. As a health food material with pharmacological activities, Angelicae Gigantis Radix (AGR) has been extensively used in oriental medicine or functional foods. Compared with the official protocol, conventional practices were investigated for provisional critical control points (CCPs) in terms of ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination. Conventional practices include field-drying, which was associated with increased fungal exposure. Compared with conventional methods, the washing process in the official protocol was not advantageous for reducing OTA contamination in final products. Instead, drying was examined to assess the fungal growth risk during AGR production. To reduce the energy cost, product overload and shortened drying time could lead to failure in controlling fungal overgrowth and subsequent OTA production. In particular, inner parts of the load contained a higher OTA content than outer parts close to the heat outlet of the dryer. Improper thermal drying of loads allowed the growth of ochratoxigenic species during AGR production. Collectively, non-field-drying and optimally loaded thermal drying are easy preventive actions in key CCPs that need to be well maintained to attenuate any further microbial risk. These assessments provide insights into good practice-based mycotoxin risk management in producing herbal medicinal crops and new cost-efficient appropriate interventions for small-scale farms.

Anti-obesity potential of Glycyrrhiza uralensis and licochalcone A through induction of adipocyte browning.

The main function of brown adipose tissue is to dissipate surplus caloric intake into heat energy by thermogenesis, increasing energy expenditure. Inducible brown adipocytes can develop within white adipose tissue (WAT) through a process referred to as browning. Browning of white fat represents a promising strategy for treatment of obesity and the related complications. We investigated whether Glycyrrhiza uralensis and its ingredients modulated adipogenesis through adipocyte browning using 3T3-L1 adipocytes and a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity mice model. Amongst extracts and fractions of G. uralensis, methyl dichloride (MeCl2) fraction was the most effective to induce expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), a fat browning marker, in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Ingredients of G. uralensis such as licochalcone A (LicoA), isoliquiritigenin, and liquiritigenin induced UCP1 expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. After inducing obesity in mice by 6-week HFD, MeCl2 fraction of G. uralensis or LicoA was intraperitoneally administered for additional 19 days. MeCl2 fraction or LicoA significantly reduced body weight gain and inguinal fat pad weights. Furthermore, MeCl2 fraction or LicoA improved metabolic disorders induced by HFD as the treatments decreased serum levels of glucose and cholesterol, and blocked insulin resistance. MeCl2 fraction or LicoA enhanced expression of brown fat markers such as UCP1, PRDM16, and PGC-1α and increased brown fat phenotype population in inguinal WAT of HFD-fed mice. Our results demonstrate that G. uralensis and LicoA are effective to reduce obesity and to recover metabolic homeostasis by inducing the brown fat phenotype.

Prevalence, Characterization, and Mycotoxin Production Ability of Fusarium Species on Korean Adlay (Coix lacrymal-jobi L.) Seeds.

Adlay seed samples were collected from three adlay growing regions (Yeoncheon, Hwasun, and Eumseong region) in Korea during 2012. Among all the samples collected, 400 seeds were tested for fungal occurrence by standard blotter and test tube agar methods and different taxonomic groups of fungal genera were detected. The most predominant fungal genera encountered were Fusarium, Phoma, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Cochliobolus and Leptosphaerulina. Fusarium species accounted for 45.6% of all species found; and, with phylogenetic analysis based on the combined sequences of two protein coding genes (EF-1α and ß-tubulin), 10 Fusarium species were characterized namely, F. incarnatum (11.67%), F. kyushuense (10.33%), F. fujikuroi (8.67%), F. concentricum (6.00%), F. asiaticum (5.67%), F. graminearum (1.67%), F. miscanthi (0.67%), F. polyphialidicum (0.33%), F. armeniacum (0.33%), and F. thapsinum (0.33%). The Fusarium species were then examined for their morphological characteristics to confirm their identity. Morphological observations of the species correlated well with and confirmed their molecular identification. The ability of these isolates to produce the mycotoxins fumonisin (FUM) and zearalenone (ZEN) was tested by the ELISA quantitative analysis method. The result revealed that FUM was produced only by F. fujikuroi and that ZEN was produced by F. asiaticum and F. graminearum.

Comparative phenolic compound profiles and antioxidative activity of the fruit, leaves, and roots of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) according to cultivation years.

BACKGROUND: The study of phenolic compounds profiles and antioxidative activity in ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots with respect to cultivation years, and has been little reported to date. Hence, this study examined the phenolic compounds profiles and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-radical-scavenging activities in the fruit, leaves, and roots of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) as a function of cultivation year. METHODS: Profiling of 23 phenolic compounds in ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots was investigated using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with the external calibration method. Antioxidative activity of ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots were evaluated using the method of DPPH free-radical-scavenging activity. RESULTS: The total phenol content in ginseng fruit and leaves was higher than in ginseng roots (p < 0.05), and the phenol content in the ginseng samples was significantly correlated to the DPPH free-radical-scavenging activity (r = 0.928****). In particular, p-coumaric acid (r = 0.847****) and ferulic acid (r = 0.742****) greatly affected the DPPH activity. Among the 23 phenolic compounds studied, phenolic acids were more abundant in ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots than the flavonoids and other compounds (p < 0.05). In particular, chlorogenic acid, gentisic acid, p- and m-coumaric acid, and rutin were the major phenolic compounds in 3-6-yr-old ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots. CONCLUSION: This study provides basic information about the antioxidative activity and phenolic compounds profiles in fruit, leaves, and roots of Korean ginseng with cultivation years. This information is potentially useful to ginseng growers and industries involved in the production of high-quality and nutritional ginseng products.

Nation-Based Occurrence and Endogenous Biological Reduction of Mycotoxins in Medicinal Herbs and Spices.

Medicinal herbs have been increasingly used for therapeutic purposes against a diverse range of human diseases worldwide. Moreover, the health benefits of spices have been extensively recognized in recent studies. However, inevitable contaminants, including mycotoxins, in medicinal herbs and spices can cause serious problems for humans in spite of their health benefits. Along with the different nation-based occurrences of mycotoxins, the ultimate exposure and toxicities can be diversely influenced by the endogenous food components in different commodities of the medicinal herbs and spices. The phytochemicals in these food stuffs can influence mold growth, mycotoxin production and biological action of the mycotoxins in exposed crops, as well as in animal and human bodies. The present review focuses on the occurrence of mycotoxins in medicinal herbs and spices and the biological interaction between mold, mycotoxin and herbal components. These networks will provide insights into the methods of mycotoxin reduction and toxicological risk assessment of mycotoxin-contaminated medicinal food components in the environment and biological organisms.

Complete genome sequence of a tentative new caulimovirus from the medicinal plant Atractylodes macrocephala.

A total of nine contigs related to caulimovirus-like sequences were detected using high-throughput paired-end RNA sequencing. An attempt to find the plant sample infected with this type of virus identified the medicinal plant Atractylodes macrocephala Koidzumi showing mild mottle symptoms. Subsequently, the complete DNA genome sequence of the Atractylodes virus was determined. The 8,105-nt genome of the virus was composed of six open reading frames and displayed the highest nucleotide sequence identity (70%) with soybean Putnam virus. Based upon the symptoms observed on the source plant, we propose to refer to this new member of the genus Caulimovirus as atractylodes mild mottle virus.

The complete genome sequences of two isolates of cnidium vein yellowing virus, a tentative new member of the family Secoviridae.

We determined the complete genome sequences of two isolates of cnidium vein yellowing virus (CnVYV-1 and -2) that co-infected all field samples collected from Cnidium officinale in Korea. Unlike CnVYV-2, however, CnVYV-1 was sap-transmissible to Nicotiana benthamiana. CnVYV-1 and -2 have bipartite genomes of 7,263 and 3,110 nucleotides and 7,278 and 3,112 nucleotides, respectively, excluding the poly(A) tails. Phylogenetic analysis of the CnVYV-1 and -2 sequences indicated close relationships to strawberry latent ringspot virus, an unassigned member of the family Secoviridae. CnVYV-1 and CnVYV-2 are closely related viruses that may represent a tentative new species of the family Secoviridae.

Postharvest strategies for deoxynivalenol and zearalenone reduction in stored adlay (Coix lachryma-jobi L.) grains.

Improperly practiced postharvest procedures can pose mycotoxin-related risks in the production of medicinal herbs. As a health food with pharmacological supplements, cereal-based adlay has been broadly used in oriental medical practice. Compared with the standard production protocol, three provisional critical control points (CCPs) in the conventional procedure were identified and assessed for mycotoxin contamination in the adlay from small farms in Korea. Although various mycotoxins were present, the prevalence of deoxynivalenol (DON) or zearalenone (ZEN) was relatively high in the adlay. In terms of drying conditions, field drying in the conventional pathway was associated with more exposure to DON than heated-air drying. Moreover, the DON or ZEN levels in chaff were higher than the levels in the inner grain, suggesting that the hulling process as another CCP would reduce the DON or ZEN exposure. In particular, the DON or ZEN levels in adlay stored for protracted periods without dehulling were very high, but a lower storage temperature of 12°C was not effective at significantly reducing these mycotoxins. In this case, the inner grain was more contaminated with DON or ZEN than the chaff after protracted storage because surface fungi, which produce mycotoxins, can penetrate deep into grain with time. Heated-air drying and nonprotracted storage limited DON contamination in adlay. More importantly, an early dehulling process should be adopted as an easy preventive action to reduce the risk of exposure to DON or ZEN in adlay postharvest. This is monitored as a central CCP for safer production of adlay from local farms.

Two novel Talaromyces species isolated from medicinal crops in Korea.

Two novel biverticillate Talaromyces species, T. angelicus and T. cnidii, were collected from the medicinal crops Angelica gigas and Cnidium officinale, respectively, in Korea. Phylogenetic analyses with the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the ß-tubulin gene as well as morphological analyses revealed that the two species differ from any known Talaromyces species. Talaromyces angelicus is related to T. flavovirens in the phylogeny of the ITS region, but the new species is grouped together with Penicillium liani and T. pinophilus in terms of its ß-tubulin phylogeny, and its growth rate on Czapek yeast autolysate differs from that of T. flavovirens. Talaromyces cnidii is phylogenetically similar to T. siamensis, but exhibits differences in the morphologies of the colony margin, metulae, and conidia.

Penicillium daejeonium sp. nov., a new species isolated from a grape and schisandra fruit in Korea.

Two isolates of monoverticillate Penicillium species were collected from a grape and schisandra fruit in Korea. Multigene phylogenetic analyses with the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and genes encoding ß-tubulin (benA) and calmodulin (cmd), as well as morphological analyses revealed that the two isolates are members of the P. sclerotiorum complex in Penicillium subgenus Aspergilloides, but different from species of the P. sclerotiorum complex. The isolates are closely related to P. cainii, P. jacksonii, and P. viticola in terms of their multigene phylogeny, but their colony and conidiophore morphologies differ from those of closely related species. The name P. daejeonium is proposed for this unclassified new species belonging to the P. sclerotiorum complex in subgenus Aspergilloides.

Induction of human microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1 by activated oncogene RhoA GTPase in A549 human epithelial cancer cells.

Oncogenic RhoA GTPase has been investigated as a mediator of pro-inflammatory responses and aggressive carcinogenesis. Among the various targets of RhoA-linked signals, pro-inflammatory prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), a major prostaglandin metabolite, was assessed in epithelial cancer cells. RhoA activation increased PGE(2) levels and gene expression of the rate-limiting PGE(2) producing enzymes, cyclooxygenase-2 and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES-1). In particular, human mPGES-1 was induced by RhoA via transcriptional activation in control and interleukin (IL)-1ß-activated cancer cells. To address the involvement of potent signaling pathways in RhoA-activated mPGES-1 induction, various signaling inhibitors were screened for their effects on mPGES-1 promoter activity. RhoA activation enhanced basal and IL-1ß-mediated phosphorylated nuclear factor-κB and extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 proteins, all of which were positively involved in RhoA-induced gene expression of mPGES-1. As one potent down-stream transcription factor of ERK1/2 signals, early growth response gene 1 product also mediated RhoA-induced gene expression of mPGES-1 by enhancing transcriptional activity. Since oncogene-triggered PGE(2) production is a critical modulator of epithelial tumor cells, RhoA-associated mPGES-1 represents a promising chemo-preventive or therapeutic target for epithelial inflammation and its associated cancers.

Mechanism-based alternative monitoring of endoplasmic reticulum stress by 8-keto-trichothecene mycotoxins using human intestinal epithelial cell line.

Type B 8-keto trichothecenes are muco-active mycotoxins that are notable contaminants in cereal-based food stuffs. Epithelial responses are of primary concern during gastrointestinal exposure in human and animal intoxications. Therefore, optimized biomarkers to assess the specific action of trichothecenes on the human epithelial barrier are needed. In the present study, 8-keto trichothecenes were tested to trigger endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stresses that are evident as alteration of eukaryotic initiation factors 2α phosphorylation and other ER stress markers in human intestinal epithelial cells. Based on the ER stress-inducing activity of 8-keto trichothecenes, we developed a bio-monitoring method using intestinal epithelial cells constitutively expressing secretory alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) reporter, which can be used as a sensitive and selective indicator for monitoring ER stress in the epithelial barrier. Type B 8-keto trichothecenes suppressed the release of SEAP in a dose-dependent manner, showing a negative correlation between logarithm of toxin dose and SEAP activity. However, tested toxins did not affect SEAP enzymatic activity and mRNA levels, but reduced the cellular release of SEAP. Moreover, in order to correct the monitoring of 8-keto trichothecene in crop matrix, the bioassay was proven to work in standard cereal extract of corn and rice. The mechanism-based monitoring of 8-keto trichothecenes is promising as a supplementary analysis means of the presence of bioactive 8-keto trichothecenes, which are potentially exposed in human gut epithelia.