Methods of ammonia removal in anaerobic digestion: a review.

The anaerobic digestion of substrates with high ammonia content has always been a bottleneck in the methanisation process of biomasses. Since microbial communities in anaerobic digesters are sensitive to free ammonia at certain conditions, the digestion of nitrogen-rich substrates such as livestock wastes may result in inhibition/toxicity eventually leading to process failures, unless appropriate engineering precautions are taken. There are many different options reported in literature to remove ammonia from anaerobic digesters to achieve a safe and stable process so that along with high methane yields, a good quality of effluents can also be obtained. Conventional techniques to remove ammonia include physical/chemical methods, immobilization and adaptation of microorganisms, while novel methods include ultrasonication, microwave, hollow fiber membranes and microbial fuel cell applications. This paper discusses conventional and novel methods of ammonia removal from anaerobic digesters using nitrogen-rich substrates, with particular focus on recent literature available about this topic.

Anaerobic digestion of nitrogen rich poultry manure: Impact of thermophilic biogas process on metal release and microbial resistances.

Poultry manure is a nitrogen rich fertilizer, which is usually recycled and spread on agricultural fields. Due to its high nutrient content, chicken manure is considered to be one of the most valuable animal wastes as organic fertilizer. However, when chicken litter is applied in its native form, concerns are raised as such fertilizers also include high amounts of antibiotic resistant pathogenic Bacteria and heavy metals. We studied the impact of an anaerobic thermophilic digestion process on poultry manure. Particularly, microbial antibiotic resistance profiles, mobile genetic elements promoting the resistance dissemination in the environment as well as the presence of heavy metals were focused in this study. The initiated heat treatment fostered a community shift from pathogenic to less pathogenic bacterial groups. Phenotypic and molecular studies demonstrated a clear reduction of multiple resistant pathogens and self-transmissible plasmids in the heat treated manure. That treatment also induced a higher release of metals and macroelements. Especially, Zn and Cu exceeded toxic thresholds. Although the concentrations of a few metals reached toxic levels after the anaerobic thermophilic treatment, the quality of poultry manure as organic fertilizer may raise significantly due to the elimination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) and self-transmissible plasmids.

Detection of Multiple Resistances, Biofilm Formation and Conjugative Transfer of Bacillus cereus from Contaminated Soils.

The purpose of this study was to detect microbial resistances to a set of antibiotics/pesticides (multi-resistance) within pesticide and antibiotic-contaminated alluvial soils and to identify the corresponding antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). To assess whether identified multi-resistant isolates are able to construct biofilms, several biofilm formation and conjugation experiments were conducted. Out of 35 isolates, six strains were used for filter mating experiments. Nine strains were identified by 16S rDNA gene sequence analyses and those were closely related to Pseudomonas sp., Citrobacter sp., Acinetobacter sp., Enterobacter sp., and in addition, Bacillus cereus was chosen for multi-resistant and pesticide-tolerant studies. Antibiotic-resistant and pesticide-tolerant bacterial strains were tested for the presence of ARGs. All nine strains were containing multiple ARGs (ampC, ermB, ermD, ermG, mecA, tetM) in different combinations. Interestingly, only strain WR34 (strongly related to Bacillus cereus) exhibited a high biofilm forming capacity on glass beads. Results obtained by filter mating experiments demonstrated gene transfer frequencies from 10(-5) to 10(-8). This study provides evidence that alluvial soils are hot spots for the accumulation of antibiotics, pesticides and biofilm formation. Particularly high resistances to tetracycline, ampicillin, amoxicillin and methicillin were proved. Apparently, isolate WR34 strongly correlated to a pathogenic organism had high potential to deploy biofilms in alluvial soils. Thus, we assume that loosened and unconsolidated soils investigated pose a high risk of an enhanced ARG prevalence.

Genotoxicity assessments of alluvial soil irrigated with wastewater from a pesticide manufacturing industry.

In this study, organochlorine pesticides (OCP) and heavy metals were analyzed from wastewater- and groundwater- irrigated soils (control samples) by gas chromatography (GC) and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), respectively. Gas chromatographic analysis revealed the presence of high concentration of pesticides in soil irrigated with wastewater (WWS). These concentrations were far above the maximum residue permissible limits indicating that alluvial soils have high binding capacity of OCP. AAS analyses revealed higher concentration of heavy metals in WWS as compared to groundwater (GWS). Also, the DNA repair (SOS)-defective Escherichia coli K-12 mutant assay and the bacteriophage lambda system were employed to estimate the genotoxicity of soils. Therefore, soil samples were extracted by hexane, acetonitrile, methanol, chloroform, and acetone. Both bioassays revealed that hexane-extracted soils from WWS were most genotoxic. A maximum survival of 15.2% and decline of colony-forming units (CFUs) was observed in polA mutants of DNA repair-defective E. coli K-12 strains when hexane was used as solvent. However, the damage of polA (-) mutants triggered by acetonitrile, methanol, chloroform, and acetone extracts was 80.0, 69.8, 65.0, and 60.7%, respectively. These results were also confirmed by the bacteriophage λ test system as hexane extracts of WWS exhibited a maximum decline of plaque-forming units for lexA mutants of E. coli K-12 pointing to an elevated genotoxic potential. The lowest survival was observed for lexA (12%) treated with hexane extracts while the percentage of survival was 25, 49.2, 55, and 78% with acetonitrile, methanol, chloroform, and acetone, respectively, after 6 h of treatment. Thus, our results suggest that agricultural soils irrigated with wastewater from pesticide industries have a notably high genotoxic potential.

Assessment of mutagenic potential of pyrolysis biochars by Ames Salmonella/mammalian-microsomal mutagenicity test.

Biochar is of raising interest in sustainable biomass utilization concepts. Particularly biochar derived from pyrolysis attaches important agricultural capacities mandatory for an improved carbon sequestration, soil fertility and amelioration, respectively. In fact, large scale field trials and commercial business with biochar materials have already been started but still only few are known about the mutagenic potential of biochars produced. In this study hemp bedding and wood pellet biomass were used for biochar production by pyrolysis. The total concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were 34.9µgg(-1) of dry mass and 33.7µgg(-1) of dry mass for hemp biochar and wood biochar, respectively. The concentration of PAHs in tar produced during wood carbonization was 17.4µgg(-1). The concentrations of phenolic compounds were 55µgg(-1) and 8.3µgg(-1) for hemp and wood biochar, respectively. Salmonella/microsomal mutagenicity tests (i.e. Ames test) revealed a maximum mutagenicity for hemp biochar extracts with strains TA97, TA98 and TA100 in the presence and absence of liver microsomal fractions, respectively. Wood biochar and tar extract exhibited maximum mutagenicity with strains TA98 and T100 both in the presence and absence of liver microsomal fraction. The reversion of the applied tester strains increased in the presence and absence of liver microsomal fractions with an increasing dose of hemp biochar extract up to 2µl per plate and decreased at a concentration of 2.5µl per plate. For wood biochar and tar extracts, reversion of tester strains increased both in the presence and absence of S9 at extract concentrations of 4µl per plate and declined at a dose of 8µl per plate. By this study a significant higher mutagenic potential for hemp biochar compared to wood biochar and tar could be observed suggesting careful application in soil melioration.

Evaluation of mutagenicity of wastewater in the vicinity of pesticide industry.

Pesticide industrial wastewater samples were taken from the Chinhat industrial area nearby Lucknow city, India. GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of pesticides lindane, α-endosulfan, ß-endosulfan, chlorpyriphos, monocrotophos, dimethoate and malathion. A pesticide mixture and wastewater extracts were studied to determine the mutagenicity by Ames Salmonella test, survival of DNA repair defective E. coli K-12 mutants and bacteriophage λ systems. Wastewater samples were concentrated with XAD-resins as an adsorbent and liquid-liquid extraction procedure. The XAD concentrated sample exhibited maximum mutagenic activity in comparison to liquid-liquid extracted sample. TA98 strain was the most responsive strain for both test samples with (+S9) and without (-S9) metabolic activation, while other strains exhibited weak response. A significant decline of DNA repair defective E. coli K-12 mutants, bacteriophage λ was observed with test samples in the survival. The intracellular damage was highest when treated with XAD concentrated sample as compared to liquid-liquid extract after 6h treatment.

Exogenous isolation of conjugative plasmids from pesticide contaminated soil.

Exogenous plasmid isolation method was used to assess conjugative plasmids conferring pesticide tolerance/multiple metal and antibiotic resistance from contaminated soil using bacteria detached from soil samples as a donor and rifampicin resistant E. coli HMS as a recipient strain on mineral salt agar medium supplemented with γ-HCH, and antibiotics ampicillin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol and kanamycin. Transconjugants were obtained on ampicillin (10 µg/ml) and tetracycline (20 µg/ml) amended MSA plates and frequency of ampicillin and tetracycline resistance gene transfer was 7.2 × 10(-6) and 9.2 × 10(-4) transconjugants/recipient, respectively. PCR typing methods were used to assess the presence of plasmids of the incompatibility groups IncP, IncN, IncW, IncQ and rolling circle plasmids of pMV158 type in DNA derived from transconjugants. All transconjugants were PCR amplified for the detection of Inc group plasmids and rolling circle plasmids of pMV158 family in which TM2, 3, 4, 11 and 12 (tet) transconjugants gave PCR products with the IncP-specific primers for both replication and transfer functions (trfA2 (IncP) and oriT (IncP)), while TM 14 (amp) gave an IncP specific PCR product for the replication gene trfA2 (IncP) only. TM15, 16, 18 and 21 (amp) gave a PCR product for the IncW-specific oriT (IncW). Out of 24 transconjugants, only TM 5 (tet) gave a PCR product with the pMV158 specific primer pair for oriT (RC). Our findings indicate that Inc group plasmids and rolling circle plasmids of pMV158 type may be responsible for transferring multiple antibiotic resistance genes among the bacterial soil community.

Mutagenicity assessment of contaminated soil in the vicinity of industrial area.

In the industrial area of Chinhat, Lucknow (India) wastewater coming from pesticide manufacturing and other industries is used to irrigate the agricultural crops. This practice has been polluting the soil and pollutants might reach the food chain. Gas chromatographic analysis revealed the presence of certain organochlorine pesticides in soil samples. Samples were extracted using different solvents, i.e., hexane, acetonitrile, methanol, chloroform, and acetone (all were HPLC-grade, SRL, India). Soil extracts were assayed for mutagenicity using Ames Salmonella/mammalian microsome test. Mutagenicity was observed in the test samples and TA98 was the most responsive strain for all the soil extracts (irrigated with wastewater) in terms of mutagenic index in the presence (+S9) and absence (-S9) of metabolic activation. In terms of slope (m) of linear dose-response curve for the most responsive strain TA98 exhibited highest sensitivity against the soil extracts in the presence and absence of S9 fraction. Hexane-extracted soil sample (wastewater) exhibited maximum mutagenicity in terms of net revertants per gram of soil in the presence and absence of S9 mix as compared to the other soil extracts. Groundwater-irrigated soil extracts displayed low level of mutagenicity as compared to wastewater-irrigated soil. The soil is accumulating a large number of pollutants due to wastewater irrigation and this practice of accumulation has an adverse impact on soil health.

Molecular characterization of conjugative plasmids in pesticide tolerant and multi-resistant bacterial isolates from contaminated alluvial soil.

A total of 35 bacteria from contaminated soil (cultivated fields) near pesticide industry from Chinhat, Lucknow, (India) were isolated and tested for their tolerance/resistance to pesticides, heavy metals and antibiotics. Bacterial isolates were identified by 16S rDNA sequencing. Gas Chromatography analysis of the soil samples revealed the presence of lindane at a concentration of 547 ng g(-1) and α-endosulfan and ß-endosulfan of 422 ng g(-1) and 421 ng g(-1) respectively. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry analysis of the test sample was done and Cr, Zn, Ni, Fe, Cu and Cd were detected at concentrations of 36.2, 42.5, 43.2, 241, 13.3 and 11.20 mg kg(-1) respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of all the isolates were determined for pesticides and heavy metals. All the multi-resistant/tolerant bacterial isolates were also tested for the presence of incompatibility (Inc) group IncP, IncN, IncW, IncQ plasmids and for rolling circle plasmids of the pMV158-family by PCR. Total community DNA was extracted from pesticide contaminated soil. PCR amplification of the bacterial isolates and soil DNA revealed the presence of IncP-specific sequences (trfA2 and oriT) which was confirmed by dot blot hybridization with RP4-derived DIG-labelled probes. Plasmids belonging to IncN, IncW and IncQ group were neither detected in the bacterial isolates nor in total soil DNA. The presence of conjugative or mobilizable IncP plasmids in the isolates indicate that these bacteria have gene transfer capacity with implications for dissemination of heavy metal and antibiotic resistance genes. We propose that IncP plasmids are mainly responsible for the spread of multi-resistant bacteria in the contaminated soils.