Dietary patterns, anthropometric status, prevalence and risk factors for anaemia among school children aged 5-11 years in Central Uganda.

BACKGROUND: To determine the dietary patterns, anthropometric status, prevalence and risk factors for anaemia among school children aged 5-11 years in a peri-urban area of Central Uganda. METHODS: A cross-sectional study involving both qualitative and quantitative methods was used. Anthropometric data were taken using standardised equipment, whereas haemoglobin was assessed using a haemoglobin meter. Food intake was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. One hundred and twenty-two primary school children, aged 5-11 years, and their carers were recruited in the study. RESULTS: The proportion of anaemic children (haemoglobin <12 g/dl) was 37.7%; 36.9% of these had mild and 0.8% had moderate anaemia. The unadjusted odds ratio (OR) showed that children who never consumed fish had a nine-fold increased odds of being anaemic [OR = 9.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.6-50.7; P = 0.018], whereas those who had fewer meals (1-2 per day) had a 27.0% increased risk (OR = 3.7, 95% CI = 1.1-12.6; P = 0.021). The adjusted OR showed number of meals per day as the only independent predictor of anaemia (OR = 3.5, 95% CI = 1.1-11.8; P = 0.031). The proportion of malnutrition (<-2 SD) for wasting (body mass index for age) was 3.3%, being underweight was 5.8% and stunting was 6.6%. Children aged >8 years were associated with wasting (P = 0.041) and stunting (P = 0.034). One main dietary pattern was identified explaining approximately 20.4% of the variability of intake in the population. However, scores of this pattern were not significantly associated with child haemoglobin levels. CONCLUSIONS: Anaemia but not macronutrient malnutrition in this cohort of school children is high. Patterns of the dietary intake observed did not explain nutritional status in this population.

Phosphorylation of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae La protein does not appear to be required for its functions in tRNA maturation and nascent RNA stabilization.

An abundant nuclear phosphoprotein, the La autoantigen, is the first protein to bind all newly synthesized RNA polymerase III transcripts. Binding by the La protein to the 3' ends of these RNAs stabilizes the nascent transcripts from exonucleolytic degradation. In the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the La protein is required for the normal pathway of tRNA maturation. Experiments in which the human protein was expressed in S. pombe have suggested that phosphorylation of the La protein regulates tRNA maturation. To dissect the role of phosphorylation in La protein function, we used mass spectrometry to identify three sites of serine phosphorylation in the S. cerevisiae La protein Lhp1p. Mutant versions of Lhp1p, in which each of the serines was mutated to alanine, were expressed in yeast cells lacking Lhp1p. Using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, we determined that we had identified and mutated all major sites of phosphorylation in Lhp1p. Lhp1p lacking all three phosphorylation sites was functional in several yeast strains that require Lhp1p for growth. Northern blotting revealed no effects of Lhp1p phosphorylation status on either pre-tRNA maturation or stabilization of nascent RNAs. Both wild-type and mutant Lhp1 proteins localized to both nucleoplasm and nucleoli, demonstrating that phosphorylation does not affect subcellular location. Thus, although La proteins from yeast to humans are phosphoproteins, phosphorylation does not appear to be required for any of the identified functions of the S. cerevisiae protein.

The srhSR gene pair from Staphylococcus aureus: genomic and proteomic approaches to the identification and characterization of gene function.

Systematic analysis of the entire two-component signal transduction system (TCSTS) gene complement of Staphylococcus aureus revealed the presence of a putative TCSTS (designated SrhSR) which shares considerable homology with the ResDE His-Asp phospho-relay pair of Bacillus subtilis. Disruption of the srhSR gene pair resulted in a dramatic reduction in growth of the srhSR mutant, when cultured under anaerobic conditions, and a 3-log attenuation in growth when analyzed in the murine pyelonephritis model. To further understand the role of SrhSR, differential display two-dimensional gel electrophoresis was used to analyze the cell-free extracts derived from the srhSR mutant and the corresponding wild type. Proteins shown to be differentially regulated were identified by mass spectrometry in combination with protein database searching. An srhSR deletion led to changes in the expression of proteins involved in energy metabolism and other metabolic processes including arginine catabolism, xanthine catabolism, and cell morphology. The impaired growth of the mutant under anaerobic conditions and the dramatic changes in proteins involved in energy metabolism shed light on the mechanisms used by S. aureus to grow anaerobically and indicate that the staphylococcal SrhSR system plays an important role in the regulation of energy transduction in response to changes in oxygen availability. The combination of proteomics, bio-informatics, and microbial genetics employed here represents a powerful set of techniques which can be applied to the study of bacterial gene function.

Cell cycle regulation of myosin-V by calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II.

Organelle transport by myosin-V is down-regulated during mitosis, presumably by myosin-V phosphorylation. We used mass spectrometry phosphopeptide mapping to show that the tail of myosin-V was phosphorylated in mitotic Xenopus egg extract on a single serine residue localized in the carboxyl-terminal organelle-binding domain. Phosphorylation resulted in the release of the motor from the organelle. The phosphorylation site matched the consensus sequence of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), and inhibitors of CaMKII prevented myosin-V release. The modulation of cargo binding by phosphorylation is likely to represent a general mechanism regulating organelle transport by myosin-V.

Negative regulation of Gcn4 and Msn2 transcription factors by Srb10 cyclin-dependent kinase.

The budding yeast transcriptional activator Gcn4 is rapidly degraded in an SCF(Cdc4)-dependent manner in vivo. Upon fractionation of yeast extracts to identify factors that mediate Gcn4 ubiquitination, we found that Srb10 phosphorylates Gcn4 and thereby marks it for recognition by SCF(Cdc4) ubiquitin ligase. Srb10 is a physiological regulator of Gcn4 stability because both phosphorylation and turnover of Gcn4 are diminished in srb10 mutants. Gcn4 is almost completely stabilized in srb10Delta pho85Delta cells, or upon mutation of all Srb10 phosphorylation sites within Gcn4, suggesting that the Pho85 and Srb10 cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) conspire to limit the accumulation of Gcn4. The multistress response transcriptional regulator Msn2 is also a substrate for Srb10 and is hyperphosphorylated in an Srb10-dependent manner upon heat-stress-induced translocation into the nucleus. Whereas Msn2 is cytoplasmic in resting wild-type cells, its nuclear exclusion is partially compromised in srb10 mutant cells. Srb10 has been shown to repress a subset of genes in vivo, and has been proposed to inhibit transcription via phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II. We propose that Srb10 also inhibits gene expression by promoting the rapid degradation or nuclear export of specific transcription factors. Simultaneous down-regulation of both transcriptional regulatory proteins and RNA polymerase may enhance the potency and specificity of transcriptional inhibition by Srb10.

A multidimensional electrospray MS-based approach to phosphopeptide mapping.

A new, multidimensional electrospray MS-based strategy for phosphopeptide mapping is described which eliminates the need to radiolabel protein with 32P or 33P. The approach utilizes two orthogonal MS scanning techniques, both of which are based on the production of phosphopeptide-specific marker ions at m/z 63 and/or 79 in the negative ion mode. These scan methods are combined with liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry and nanoelectrospray MS/MS to selectively detect and identify phosphopeptides in complex proteolytic digests. Low-abundance, low-stoichiometry phosphorylation sites can be selectively determined in the presence of an excess of nonphosphorylated peptides, even in cases where the signal from the phosphopeptide is indistinguishable from background in the conventional MS scan. The strategy, which has been developed and refined in our laboratory over the past few years, is particularly well suited to phosphoproteins that are phosphorylated to varying degrees of stoichiometry on multiple sites. Sensitivity and selectivity of the method are demonstrated here using model peptides and a commercially available phosphoprotein standard. In addition, the strategy is illustrated by the complete in vitro and in vivo phosphopeptide mapping of Sic1p, a regulator of the G1/S transition in budding yeast.

Overview of peptide and protein analysis by mass spectrometry.

One goal of this introductory overview is to try and dispel the still widely held, but now mistaken, belief that mass spectrometry is beyond the technical resources of the typical laboratory or facility engaged in the structural characterization or synthesis of peptides and proteins. Over the last five years, mass spectrometers and associated data systems have become available that can be operated by anyone capable of running a modern amino acid analyzer or Edman sequencer, yet are powerful enough to handle the most demanding analyses that the peptide or protein investigator might require. The remaining goals of this article are to familiarize peptide and protein chemists with the types of mass spectrometers that are appropriate for the majority of their analytical needs, to describe the kinds of experiments that can be performed with these instruments on a routine basis, and to discuss the kinds of information that these experiments provide. The emphasis here is on established tools and techniques that can realistically be used for problem solving. As a result, many useful instruments and techniques employed by the trained mass spectroscopist are not discussed here, because they do not satisfy these criteria or are not yet widely available; however, a few of these are briefly mentioned at the end of the unit. The overview concludes with a tutorial discussion on the meaning and practical importance of a number of fundamental experimental and performance-related issues that have important implications for interpretation and use of mass spectral data, such as mass accuracy and resolution.

Overview of peptide and protein analysis by mass spectrometry.

The goals of this unit are to familiarize peptide and protein chemists with the types of mass spectrometers that are appropriate for the majority of their analytical needs, to describe the kinds of experiments that can be performed with these instruments on a routine basis, and to discuss the kinds of information that these experiments provide. The emphasis here is on established tools and techniques that can realistically be used for problem solving. As a result, many useful instruments and techniques employed by the trained mass spectroscopist are not discussed here, because they do not satisfy these criteria or are not yet widely available. A few of these are briefly mentioned at the end of this introductory overview. The overview concludes with a tutorial discussion on the meaning and practical importance of a number of fundamental experimental and performance-related issues that have important implications for interpretation and use of mass spectral data, such as mass accuracy and resolution.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yak1p protein kinase autophosphorylates on tyrosine residues and phosphorylates myelin basic protein on a C-terminal serine residue.

The serine/threonine protein kinase, Yak1p, functions as a negative regulator of the cell cycle in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, acting downstream of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase. In the present work we report that overexpression of haemagglutinin-tagged full-lengthYak1p and an N-terminally truncated form (residues 148-807) lead to growth arrest in PKA compromised yak1 null yeast cells. Both forms of recombinant Yak1p kinase were catalytically active and preferred myelin basic protein (MBP) as a substrate over several other proteins. Phosphopeptide analysis of bovine MBP by tandem MS revealed two major Yak1p phosphorylation sites, Thr-97 and Ser-164. Peptides containing each site were obtained and tested as Yak1p substrates. Both forms of Yak1p phosphorylated a peptide containing the Ser-164 residue with far more efficient kinetics than MBP. The maximal velocity (V(max)) values of the full-length Yak1p reaction were 110+/-21 (Ser-164) and 8.7+/-1.7 (MBP), and those of N-terminally truncated Yak1p were 560.7+/-74.8 (Ser-164) and 34. 4+/-2.2 (MBP) pmol/min per mg of protein. Although neither form of Yak1p was able to phosphorylate two generic protein tyrosine kinase substrates, both were phosphorylated on tyrosine residues in vivo and underwent tyrosine autophosphorylation when reacted with ATP in vitro. Tandem MS showed that Tyr-530 was phosphorylated both in vivo and in vitro after reaction with ATP. Pre-treatment with protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B removed all of Yak1p phosphotyrosine content and drastically reduced Yak1p activity against exogenous substrates, suggesting that the phosphotyrosine content of the enzyme is essential for its catalytic activity. Although the N-terminally truncated Yak1p was expressed at a lower level than the full-length protein, its catalytic activity and phosphotyrosine content were significantly higher than those of the full-length enzyme. Taken together, our results suggest that Yak1p is a dual specificity protein kinase which autophosphorylates on Tyr-530 and phosphorylates exogenous substrates on Ser/Thr residues.

Isolation and identification of a mouse brain protein recognized by antisera to heart fatty acid-binding protein.

Although a novel brain-specific fatty acid-binding protein (B-FABP) was recently cloned, the identity of a second fatty acid-binding protein detected with antibodies to the heart (H-FABP) has not been clearly resolved. The present investigation, using matrix-assisted laser desorption mass spectrometry, showed that this protein was a form of H-FABP whose N-terminal amino acid was neither methionine nor was it acetylated. Furthermore, isoelectric focusing revealed two major isoforms, a major band pl 7.4 and a minor band pl 6.4, in a distribution pattern opposite to that observed for H-FABP in the heart. Tryptic peptide mass maps of the in-gel digested SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis protein bands showed that the two isoforms differed only in a single peptide corresponding to residues 97-106 of the heart H-FABP sequence. This peptide had an [M + H]+ ion of either 1205.62 (pl 7.4) or 1206.53 (pl 6.4), consistent with a single amino acid substitution, Asp98 or Asn98. Whereas it is well established that both H-FABP and B-FABP interact with polyunsaturated fatty acids, we showed that they also significantly alter plasma membrane cholesterol dynamics in a manner opposite to that of another brain lipid-binding protein, sterol carrier protein-2. In summary, the data demonstrated for the first time that the H-FABP from brain, while nearly identical to H-FABP from heart, differed significantly in isoform distribution and in amino terminal structure from heart H-FABP. This suggests that the brain and heart H-FABP may not necessarily function identically in these tissues.

Mammalian Chk2 is a downstream effector of the ATM-dependent DNA damage checkpoint pathway.

In response to DNA damage and replication blocks, cells activate pathways that arrest the cell cycle and induce the transcription of genes that facilitate repair. In mammals, ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) kinase together with other checkpoint kinases are important components in this response. We have cloned the rat and human homologs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rad 53 and Schizosaccharomyces pombe Cds1, called checkpoint kinase 2 (chk2). Complementation studies suggest that Chk2 can partially replace the function of the defective checkpoint kinase in the Cds1 deficient yeast strain. Chk2 was phosphorylated and activated in response to DNA damage in an ATM dependent manner. Its activation in response to replication blocks by hydroxyurea (HU) treatment, however, was independent of ATM. Using mass spectrometry, we found that, similar to Chk1, Chk2 can phosphorylate serine 216 in Cdc25C, a site known to be involved in negative regulation of Cdc25C. These results suggest that Chk2 is a downstream effector of the ATM-dependent DNA damage checkpoint pathway. Activation of Chk2 might not only delay mitotic entry, but also increase the capacity of cultured cells to survive after treatment with gamma-radiation or with the topoisomerase-I inhibitor topotecan.

Mammalian homologues of the Drosophila slit protein are ligands of the heparan sulfate proteoglycan glypican-1 in brain.

Using an affinity matrix in which a recombinant glypican-Fc fusion protein expressed in 293 cells was coupled to protein A-Sepharose, we have isolated from rat brain at least two proteins that were detected by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis as a single 200-kDa silver-stained band, from which 16 partial peptide sequences were obtained by nano-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Mouse expressed sequence tags containing two of these peptides were employed for oligonucleotide design and synthesis of probes by polymerase chain reaction and enabled us to isolate from a rat brain cDNA library a 4.1-kilobase clone that encoded two of our peptide sequences and represented the N-terminal portion of a protein containing a signal peptide and three leucine-rich repeats. Comparisons with recently published sequences also showed that our peptides were derived from proteins that are members of the Slit/MEGF protein family, which share a number of structural features such as N-terminal leucine-rich repeats and C-terminal epidermal growth factor-like motifs, and in Drosophila Slit is necessary for the development of midline glia and commissural axon pathways. All of the five known rat and human Slit proteins contain 1523-1534 amino acids, and our peptide sequences correspond best to those present in human Slit-1 and Slit-2. Binding of these ligands to the glypican-Fc fusion protein requires the presence of the heparan sulfate chains, but the interaction appears to be relatively specific for glypican-1 insofar as no other identified heparin-binding proteins were isolated using our affinity matrix. Northern analysis demonstrated the presence of two mRNA species of 8. 6 and 7.5 kilobase pairs using probes based on both N- and C-terminal sequences, and in situ hybridization histochemistry showed that these glypican-1 ligands are synthesized by neurons, such as hippocampal pyramidal cells and cerebellar granule cells, where we have previously also demonstrated glypican-1 mRNA and immunoreactivity. Our results therefore indicate that Slit family proteins are functional ligands of glypican-1 in nervous tissue and suggest that their interactions may be critical for certain stages of central nervous system histogenesis.

Isolation and characterization of 26- and 30-kDa rat liver proteins immunoreactive to anti-sterol carrier protein-2 antibodies.

Although the existing literature suggests that the sterol carrier protein-2 (SCP-2) gene has only two initiation sites encoding for a 58- and a 15-kDa protein, respectively, this does not explain the profusion of other putative SCP-2-related proteins detectable on Western blotting. Two of these additional anti-SCP-2 immunoreactive proteins, 13.2 and 46 kDa, appear due to proteolytic processing of the two gene transcripts. However, the origin of additional immunoreactive rat liver proteins near 26 and 30 kDa is unclear. The latter proteins were consistently detected on Western blotting by three independent types of polyclonal antisera: anti-13.2-kDa SCP-2, anti-synthetic peptide from the amino-terminus of the 13.2-kDa SCP-2, and Protein A affinity-purified anti-synthetic peptide to the amino-terminus of 13.2-kDa SCP-2. To resolve whether the 26- and 30-kDa proteins are SCP-2 gene products, each protein was isolated from rat liver and purified to homogeneity as indicated by Tricine-SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing, and/or mass spectroscopy. Their masses, determined by MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy, were 25.7 and 29.8 kDa, respectively. However, the mass spectral data were not consistent with either protein being an SCP-2 gene product. Peptide mass mapping of the 25.7-kDa protein revealed identity to the rat 25,784.79-Da glutathione-S-transferase. Furthermore, neither the mass nor the amino acid composition of the 29.8-kDa protein correlated with any SCP-2 gene product or dimerized SCP-2 gene product. A database search of the amino acid composition identified the protein as rat carbonic anhydrase. In summary, although the 26- and 29.8-kDa proteins may share some common epitopes with the 13.2-kDa SCP-2, they were not SCP-2 gene products.

Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior.

The hypothalamus plays a central role in the integrated control of feeding and energy homeostasis. We have identified two novel neuropeptides, both derived from the same precursor by proteolytic processing, that bind and activate two closely related (previously) orphan G protein-coupled receptors. These peptides, termed orexin-A and -B, have no significant structural similarities to known families of regulatory peptides. prepro-orexin mRNA and immunoreactive orexin-A are localized in neurons within and around the lateral and posterior hypothalamus in the adult rat brain. When administered centrally to rats, these peptides stimulate food consumption. prepro-orexin mRNA level is up-regulated upon fasting, suggesting a physiological role for the peptides as mediators in the central feedback mechanism that regulates feeding behavior.

Examination of micro-tip reversed-phase liquid chromatographic extraction of peptide pools for mass spectrometric analysis.

Mass spectrometry occupies a central position in most current protein identification schemes. So-called 'mass fingerprinting' techniques rely on composite mass patterns of proteolytic fragments, or dissociation products thereof, to query databases. Keys to successful analysis of ever smaller amounts are sensitivity and complete spectral information, both of which depend for a large part on proper sample preparation. Clean-up and concentration of peptide mixtures over eppendorf gel loading tips filled with chromatographic media (i.e. 'micro-tips') are believed to be quite useful in this regard. We have studied quantitative and qualitative aspects of polypeptide extraction using these small manual devices. Optimization of sample volume and additives, micro-tip bed volume, and eluent composition and volume, all contribute to effective recovery (approximately 65-70%, on average). Improper digest conditions can, in fact, lead to far bigger losses, suggesting the need for at least trace amounts of Zwittergent 3-16. Of particular interest is our finding that partial fractionation, obtained by two-step micro-tip elution, generally results in more and better signals during subsequent mass analysis. Thus, by using optimized micro-tips, in combination with adequate sample handling and instrumentation, direct mass spectrometric identification can be routinely and successfully done in any resource facility type setting.

Phosphorylation of Sic1p by G1 Cdk required for its degradation and entry into S phase.

G1 cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)-triggered degradation of the S-phase Cdk inhibitor Sic1p has been implicated in the transition from G1 to S phase in the cell cycle of budding yeast. A multidimensional electrospray mass spectrometry technique was used to map G1 Cdk phosphorylation sites in Sic1p both in vitro and in vivo. A Sic1p mutant lacking three Cdk phosphorylation sites did not serve as a substrate for Cdc34p-dependent ubiquitination in vitro, was stable in vivo, and blocked DNA replication. Moreover, purified phosphoSic1p was ubiquitinated in cyclin-depleted G1 extract, indicating that a primary function of G1 cyclins is to tag Sic1p for destruction. These data suggest a molecular model of how phosphorylation and proteolysis cooperate to bring about the G1/S transition in budding yeast.

The essential role of mass spectrometry in characterizing protein structure: mapping posttranslational modifications.

Over the last few years we have developed mass spectrometry-based approaches for selective identification of a variety of posttranslational modifications, and for sequencing the modified peptides. These methods do not involve radiolabeling or derivatization. Instead, modification-specific fragment ions are produced by collision-induced dissociation (CID) during analysis of peptides by ESMS. The formation and detection of these marker ions on-the-fly during the LC-ESMS analysis of a protein digest is a powerful technique for identifying posttranslationally modified peptides. Using the marker ion strategy in an orthogonal fashion, a precursor ion scan can detect peptides which give rise to a diagnostic fragment ion, even in an unfractionated protein digest. Once the modified peptide has been located, the appropriate precursor ion can be sequenced by tandem MS. The utility and interplay of this approach to mapping PTM is illustrated with examples that involve protein glycosylation and phosphorylation.

Calmodulin modulates the interaction between IQGAP1 and Cdc42. Identification of IQGAP1 by nanoelectrospray tandem mass spectrometry.

Calmodulin regulates numerous fundamental metabolic pathways by binding to and modulating diverse target proteins. In this study, calmodulin-binding proteins were isolated from normal (Hs578Bst) and malignant (MCF-7) human breast cell lines with calmodulin-Sepharose and analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A protein that migrated at approximately 190 kDa bound to calmodulin in the presence of Ca2+ and was the only calmodulin-binding protein detected in the absence of Ca2+. This 190-kDa protein was identified as IQGAP1 by nanoelectrospray mass spectrometry and collision-induced dissociation tandem mass spectrometry. IQGAP1 coimmunoprecipitated with calmodulin from lysates of MCF-7 cells. Moreover, overlay with 125I-calmodulin confirmed that IQGAP1 binds directly to calmodulin. Analysis of the functional effects of the interaction revealed that Ca2+/calmodulin disrupted the binding of purified IQGAP1 to the Ras-related protein Cdc42 in a concentration-dependent manner. These data clearly identify IQGAP1 as the predominant calmodulin-binding protein in Ca2+-free breast cell lysates and reveal that calmodulin modulates the interaction between IQGAP1 and Cdc42.

Phosphopeptide analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

In this paper we present methods for identifying and sequencing phosphopeptides in simple mixtures, such as HPLC fractions, at the subpicomole level by (+) ion matrix-assisted laser desorption time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). Data are presented which indicate that when a reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometer is used, MALDI can distinguish tyrosine phosphorylation from serine and threonine phosphorylation for peptides containing a single phosphate group. Phosphopeptides are identified in the (+) ion MALDI reflector spectrum by the presence of [MH-H3PO4]+ and [MH-HPO3]+ fragment ions formed by metastable decomposition. An abundant [MH-H3PO4]+ ion, accompanied by a weaker [MH-HPO3]+ ion indicates that the peptide is most likely phosphorylated on serine or threonine. In contrast, phosphotyrosine-containing peptides generally exhibit [MH-HPO3]+ fragment ions and little, if any [MH-H3PO4]+. Ambiguities do arise, most often with phosphopeptides that contain residues which readily lose water (such as unmodified serine), but these can often be resolved by recording a complete metastable fragment ion (postsource decay) spectrum. Postsource decay is shown here to be a viable technique for sequencing phosphopeptides. It can be used to distinguish between serine/ threonine and tyrosine phosphorylation and in many cases can be used to determine the exact site of phosphorylation in a peptide sequence. Nearly complete sequence coverage and phosphorylation site mapping is generally possible using approximately 300 fmol of peptide.