Homeostatic defects in interleukin 18-deficient mice contribute to protection against the lethal effects of endotoxin.

Toll-like receptor-4-lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation is used to delineate signals involved in cross-talk between antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and lymphocytes such as natural killer (NK) cells. Following APC stimulation and cytokine release, NK cells produce interferon (IFN)-γ. High levels of LPS induce endotoxicosis, a systemic inflammatory disease in which IFN-γ causes significant morbidity and mortality. Several studies have highlighted the role of interleukin (IL)-18, IL-1ß, IL-17A and IFN-γ in the development of endotoxicosis, but whether these cytokines interact with each other is yet to be determined. Our data demonstrate that IL-18 and IL-17A have important roles in NK cell IFN-γ production during endotoxicosis. Importantly, we provide the first evidence that IL-18 also has a role in IL-17A production by T-cell receptor (TCR)-δ cells. Furthermore, we demonstrate that IL-18-deficient mice have a defect in γδ T-cell homeostasis and IL-1ß production, both of which can contribute to the development of disease through induction of IL-17A. These results reveal novel requirements for IL-18 in innate immune cell homeostasis and activation, demonstrating that the role of IL-18 in innate immunity occurs at a level other than activation.

A role for granzyme M in TLR4-driven inflammation and endotoxicosis.

Lymphocyte perforin and serine protease granzymes are well-recognized extrinsic mediators of apoptosis. We now demonstrate that cytotoxic lymphocyte granule components profoundly augment the myeloid cell inflammatory cytokine cascade in response to TLR4 ligation. Whereas caspase-1-deficient mice were completely resistant to LPS, reduced serum cytokine production and resistance to lethal endotoxicosis were also obtained with perforin-deficient mice, indicating a role for granzymes. Consistently, a lack of granzyme M (GrzM) resulted in reduced serum IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, TNF, and IFN-gamma levels and significantly reduced susceptibility to lethal endotoxicosis. These altered responses were also observed in granzyme A-deficient but not granzyme B-deficient mice. A role for APC-NK cell cross-talk in the inflammatory cascade was highlighted, as GrzM was exclusively expressed by NK cells and resistance to LPS was also observed on a RAG-1/GrzM-double deficient background. Collectively, the data suggest that NK cell GrzM augments the inflammatory cascade downstream of LPS-TLR4 signaling, which ultimately results in lethal endotoxicosis. Most importantly, these data demonstrate that granzymes should no longer be considered solely as mediators of apoptosis, but additionally as potential key regulators of inflammation.

Functional dissection of the granzyme family: cell death and inflammation.

Cytotoxic lymphocytes rapidly respond and destroy both malignant cells and cells infected with intracellular pathogens. One mechanism, known as granule exocytosis, employs the secretory granules of these lymphocytes. These include the pore-forming protein perforin (pfp) and a family of serine proteases known as granzymes that cleave and activate effector molecules within the target cell. Over the past two decades, the study of granzymes has largely focused on the ability of these serine proteases to induce cell death. More recently, sophisticated mouse models of disease coupled with gene-targeted mice have allowed investigators to ask why granzyme subfamilies are encoded on different chromosomal loci and what broader role these enzymes might play in inflammation and immune response. Here, we provide a brief overview of the granzyme superfamily, their relationship to pfp, and their reported functions in apoptosis. This overview is followed by a comprehensive analysis of the less characterized and developing field regarding the non-apoptotic functions of granzymes.

Combination therapy of established cancer using a histone deacetylase inhibitor and a TRAIL receptor agonist.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) and agents such as recombinant tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and agonistic anti-TRAIL receptor (TRAIL-R) antibodies are anticancer agents that have shown promise in preclinical settings and in early phase clinical trials as monotherapies. Although HDACi and activators of the TRAIL pathway have different molecular targets and mechanisms of action, they share the ability to induce tumor cell-selective apoptosis. The ability of HDACi to induce expression of TRAIL-R death receptors 4 and 5 (DR4/DR5), and induce tumor cell death via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway provides a molecular rationale to combine these agents with activators of the TRAIL pathway that activate the alternative (death receptor) apoptotic pathway. Herein, we demonstrate that the HDACi vorinostat synergizes with the mouse DR5-specific monoclonal antibody MD5-1 to induce rapid and robust tumor cell apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, using a preclinical mouse breast cancer model, we show that the combination of vorinostat and MD5-1 is safe and induces regression of established tumors, whereas single agent treatment had little or no effect. Functional analyses revealed that rather than mediating enhanced tumor cell apoptosis via the simultaneous activation of the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways, vorinostat augmented MD5-1-induced apoptosis concomitant with down-regulation of the intracellular apoptosis inhibitor cellular-FLIP (c-FLIP). These data demonstrate that combination therapies involving HDACi and activators of the TRAIL pathway can be efficacious for the treatment of cancer in experimental mouse models.

Functional analysis of granzyme M and its role in immunity to infection.

Cytotoxic lymphocytes express a large family of granule serine proteases, including one member, granzyme (Grz)M, with a unique protease activity, restricted expression, and distinct gene locus. Although a number of Grzs, including GrzM, have been shown to mediate target cell apoptosis in the presence of perforin, the biological activity of Grz has been restricted to control of a number of viral pathogens, including two natural mouse pathogens, ectromelia, and murine CMV (MCMV). In this article, we describe the first reported gene targeting of GrzM in mice. GrzM-deficient mice display normal NK cell/T cell development and homeostasis and intact NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity of tumor targets as measured by membrane damage and DNA fragmentation. GrzM-deficient mice demonstrated increased susceptibility to MCMV infection typified by the presence of more viral inclusions and transiently higher viral burden in the visceral organs of GrzM-deficient mice compared with wild-type (WT) mice. The cytotoxicity of NK cells from MCMV-infected GrzM-deficient mice remained unchanged and, like WT control mice, GrzM-deficient mice eventually effectively cleared MCMV infection from the visceral organs. In contrast, GrzM-deficient mice were as resistant as WT control mice to mouse pox ectromelia infection, as well as challenge with a number of NK cell-sensitive tumors. These data confirm a role for GrzM in the host response to MCMV infection, but suggest that GrzM is not critical for NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity.