COVID-19 epidemiology, health services utilisation and health care seeking behaviour during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in Mweso health zone, Democratic Republic of Congo.

Background: Although the evidence about coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has increased exponentially since the beginning of the pandemic, less is known about the direct and indirect effects of the pandemic in humanitarian settings. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), most studies occurred in Kinshasa and other cities. Limited research was conducted in remote conflict-affected settings. We investigated the COVID-19 epidemiology, health service utilisation, and health care-seeking behaviour during the first year of the pandemic (March 2020-March 2021) in the Mweso health zone, North Kivu, DRC. Methods: This mixed-methods study includes a descriptive epidemiological analysis of reported COVID-19 cases data extracted from the provincial line list, interrupted time series analysis of health service utilisation using routine health service data, qualitative perceptions of health care workers about how health services were affected, and community members' health care seeking behaviour from a representative household survey and focus group discussions. Results: The COVID-19 epidemiology in North Kivu aligns with evidence reported globally, yet case fatality rates were high due to underreporting. Testing capacity was limited and initially mainly available in the province's capital. Health service utilisation showed different patterns - child measles vaccinations experienced a decrease at the beginning of the pandemic, while outpatient consultations, malaria, and pneumonia showed an increase over time. Such increases might have been driven by insecurity and population displacements rather than COVID-19. Community members continued seeking care during the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic and visited the same health facilities as before COVID-19. Financial constraints, not COVID-19, were the main barrier reported to accessing health care. Conclusions: The first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Mweso health zone was characterised by low testing capacity and an underestimation of reported COVID-19 infections. The increase in health care utilisation should be further explored to understand the role of factors unrelated to COVID-19, such as insecurity, population displacement, and poverty, which remain major challenges to successfully providing health services and improving the population's health. Measles vaccination coverage dropped, which exacerbated the ongoing measles outbreak. Improved decentralised testing capacity will be crucial for future epidemics and enhanced efforts to maintain child vaccination coverage.

Health care utilisation in Cox's Bazar district, Bangladesh, during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic: A mixed-methods study among host communities.

To respond to the COVID-19 pandemic, countries introduced public health and social measures that had indirect societal, economic consequences. Concerns during epidemics include continuity of routine health services. We investigate how healthcare utilisation and healthcare seeking behaviour changed during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic among host communities in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh. This mixed-methods study combines quantitative analyses of routine health data and population-based findings about healthcare seeking behaviours. Trends in consultations changed according to facility level (higher-level facilities included Upazila Health Complexes and District Hospitals; lower-level facilities included Community Clinics and Union Health and Family Welfare Centers). At the pandemic's beginning, drops were seen at higher-level health facilities for outpatient department (OPD) consultations, respiratory infections, and antenatal care. Minor reductions or increases were seen at lower-level facilities for the same services. Half of the subdistricts reported a cumulative increase in OPD and respiratory tract infection consultations. Most subdistricts reported a cumulative decrease in antenatal care. Child vaccinations dropped in all subdistricts, half of which did not catch-up, resulting in a cumulative decrease of delivered doses. Fear of contracting COVID-19 and financial constraints were the main reasons for decreased access. Drivers of healthcare seeking behaviours should be better understood to guide preparedness and service delivery modalities at primary and secondary levels.

The implementation of infection prevention and control measures and health care utilisation in ACF-supported health facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2020.

BACKGROUND: Infection prevention and control (IPC) was a central component of the Democratic Republic of the Congo's COVID-19 response in 2020, aiming to prevent infections and ensure safe health service provision. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to assess the evolution of IPC capacity in 65 health facilities supported by Action Contre la Faim in three health zones in Kinshasa (Binza Meteo (BM), Binza Ozone (BO), and Gombe), investigate how triage and alert validation were implemented, and estimate how health service utilisation changed in these facilities (April-December 2020). METHODS: We used three datasets: IPC Scorecard data assessing health facilities' IPC capacity at baseline, monthly and weekly triage data, and monthly routine data on eight health services. We examined factors associated with triage and isolation capacity with a mixed-effects negative binomial model and estimated changes in health service utilisation with a mixed-model with random intercept and long-term trend for each health facility. We reported incidence rate ratios (IRRs) for level change when the pandemic began, for trend change, and for lockdown and post-lockdown periods (Gombe). We estimated cumulative and monthly percent differences with expected consultations. RESULTS: IPC capacity reached an average score of 90% by the end of the programme. A one-point increase in the IPC score was associated with +6% and +5% increases in triage capacity in BO and Gombe, respectively, and with +21% and +10% increases in isolation capacity in the same zones. When the pandemic began, decreases were seen in outpatient consultations (IRR: 0.67, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.48-0.95] BM&BO-combined; IRR: 0.29, 95%CI [0.16-0.53] Gombe), consultations for respiratory tract infections (IRR: 0.48, 95%CI [0.28-0.87] BM&BO-combined), malaria (IRR: 0.60, 95%CI [0.43-0.84] BM&BO-combined, IRR: 0.33, 95%CI [0.18-0.58] Gombe), and vaccinations (IRR: 0.27, 95%CI [0.10-0.71] Gombe). Maternal health services decreased in Gombe (ANC1: IRR: 0.42, 95%CI [0.21-0.85]). CONCLUSIONS: The effectiveness of the triage and alert validation process was affected by the complexity of implementing a broad clinical definition in limited-resource settings with a pre-pandemic epidemiological profile characterised by infectious diseases with symptoms like COVID-19. Readily available testing capacity remains key for future pandemic response to improve the disease understanding and maintain health services.

The first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in humanitarian settings: epidemiology, health service utilization, and health care seeking behavior in Bangui and surrounding areas, Central African Republic.

BACKGROUND: Despite increasing evidence on COVID-19, few studies have been conducted in humanitarian settings and none have investigated the direct and indirect effects of the pandemic in the Central African Republic. We studied the COVID-19 epidemiology, health service utilization, and health care seeking behavior in the first year of the pandemic in Bangui and surrounding areas. METHODS: This mixed-methods study encompasses four components: descriptive epidemiological analysis of reported COVID-19 cases data; interrupted time series analysis of health service utilization using routine health service data; qualitative analysis of health care workers' perceptions of how health services were affected; and health care seeking behavior of community members with a household survey and focus group discussions. RESULTS: The COVID-19 epidemiology in CAR aligns with that of most other countries with males representing most of the tested people and positive cases. Testing capacity was mainly concentrated in Bangui and skewed towards symptomatic cases, travelers, and certain professions. Test positivity was high, and many cases went undiagnosed. Decreases in outpatient department consultations, consultations for respiratory tract infections, and antenatal care were found in most study districts. Cumulative differences in districts ranged from - 46,000 outpatient department consultations in Begoua to + 7000 in Bangui 3; - 9337 respiratory tract infections consultations in Begoua to + 301 in Bangui 1; and from - 2895 antenatal care consultations in Bimbo to + 702 in Bangui 2. Consultations for suspected malaria showed mixed results while delivery of BCG vaccine doses increased. Fewer community members reported seeking care at the beginning of the pandemic compared to summer 2021, especially in urban areas. The fear of testing positive and complying with related restrictions were the main obstacles to seeking care. CONCLUSIONS: A large underestimation of infections and decreased health care utilization characterized the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangui and surrounding area. Improved decentralized testing capacity and enhanced efforts to maintain health service utilization will be crucial for future epidemics. A better understanding of health care access is needed, which will require strengthening the national health information system to ensure reliable and complete data. Further research on how public health measures interact with security constraints is needed.

Protecting essential health services in low-income and middle-income countries and humanitarian settings while responding to the COVID-19 pandemic.

In health outcomes terms, the poorest countries stand to lose the most from these disruptions. In this paper, we make the case for a rational approach to public sector health spending and decision making during and in the early recovery phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on ethics and equity principles, it is crucial to ensure that patients not infected by COVID-19 continue to get access to healthcare and that the services they need continue to be resourced. We present a list of 120 essential non-COVID-19 health interventions that were adapted from the model health benefit packages developed by the Disease Control Priorities project.

First Wave of the 2016-17 Cholera Outbreak in Hodeidah City, Yemen - ACF Experience and Lessons Learned.

INTRODUCTION: Although cases were reported only in 2010 and 2011, cholera is probably endemic in Yemen. In the context of a civil war, a cholera outbreak was declared in different parts of the country October 6th, 2016. This paper describes the ACF outbreak response in Hodeidah city from October 28th, 2016 to February 28th, 2017 in order to add knowledge to this large outbreak. METHODS: The ACF outbreak response in Hodeidah city included a case management component and prevention measures in the community. In partnership with the Ministry of Public Health and Population of Yemen (MoPHP), the case management component included a Cholera Treatment Center (CTC) implemented in the Al Thoraw hospital, 11 Oral Rehydration Therapy Corners (ORTCs) and an active case finding system. In partnership with other stakeholders, prevention measures in the community, including access to safe water and hygiene promotion, were implemented in the most affected communities of the city. RESULTS: From October 28th, 2016 until February 28th, 2017, ACF provided care to 8,270 Acute Watery Diarrhea (AWD) cases, of which 5,210 (63%) were suspected cholera cases, in the CTC and the 11 ORTCs implemented in Hodeidah city. The attack rate was higher among people living in Al Hali district, with a peak in November 2016. At the CTC, 8% of children under 5 years-old also presented with Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM). The Case-Fatality Rate (CFR) was low (0.07%) but 15% of admitted cases defaulted for cultural and security reasons. Environmental management lacked the information to appropriately target affected areas. Financial resources did not allow complete coverage of the city. CONCLUSION: Response to the first wave of a large cholera outbreak in Hodeidah city was successful in maintaining a CFR <1% in the CTC. However, considering the actual context of Yemen and its water infrastructure, much more efforts are needed to control the current outbreak resurgence.

Menopausal hormone therapy use in relation to breast cancer incidence in 11 European countries.

INTRODUCTION: The use of menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) has decreased in many countries in the past 10 years. This is a consequence of the initial publication of the results of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin. In various countries, further studies then analyzed the incidence of breast cancer (BC) in relation to changes in MHT use. Some reported a decreased BC incidence following cessation of MHT, but others did not. This may reflect differences in BC incidence, in MHT use or in confounding factors, but also in study methodology. AIM: To analyze the changes in BC incidence and MHT use, using the same methodology, in 11 European countries. MATERIALS & METHOD: We limited the study to women between the ages of 45 and 69. BC incidence data were provided from cancer registries. MHT sales data were extracted from health sales databases for the years 2003-2013. The association between BC incidence and the rate of MHT use during the past year in Europe was assessed using linear mixed models. RESULTS: A drop in MHT sales was consistent in all countries for the whole period of follow-up. This was not the case for BC incidence. We found no evidence of a relation between BC incidence and MHT sales in the past year, except for sales of tibolone. CONCLUSIONS: The longer observation period did not confirm the results of studies that had a shorter follow-up, except in relation to tibolone. The role of confounding factors needs to be clarified.

Menopausal hormone therapy use in 17 European countries during the last decade.

INTRODUCTION: The first 'Women's Health Initiative' (WHI) randomised controlled trial assessed use of continuous combined menopausal hormone therapy (cc-MHT). It was prematurely stopped because of an increased invasive breast cancer (BC), coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke and pulmonary embolism risk. Consequently, scientific societies recommended use of MHT at the lowest effective dose for the shortest duration. As a result, a sharp decline in MHT use occurred worldwide. AIM: To report in a uniform way the change in MHT use in European countries. To evaluate whether the variability of the MHT changes were related to some medical indicators. MATERIALS AND METHODS: IMS Health provided MHT sales data for the years 2002 till 2010 for 17 countries. We tested several hypotheses to explain the heterogeneity of MHT use changes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: In 2002, the estimated MHT rate in women 45-69 years old varied considerably between countries ranging from less than 5% to more than 25%. In all countries a profound decrease occurred between 2002 and 2010, ranging from 50% to 77%. By the end of 2010, the MHT uptake was lower than 10% in all countries except in Finland. MHT use change was not correlated to MHT use and prevailing BC incidence at baseline, nor to the number of gynaecologists per 100,000 women or to the level of information about MHT. CONCLUSION: The global MHT use experienced a sharp decrease in all the analysed countries, although some variability exists. The decrease was unrelated to the assessed parameters.

Treatment of climacteric symptoms in breast cancer patients: a retrospective study from a medication databank.

INTRODUCTION: Women affected by breast cancer (BC) will often go through menopause at an earlier age and display more frequent and severe symptoms than women who have a natural menopause. The safety of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and vaginal estrogens for BC survivors has been debated over time and remains unclear. Non hormonal therapies such as antidepressants, gabapentine and clonidine may be useful for those patients but there are few data about their safety. AIM: This retrospective study analyses the use by BC patients of treatments known to alleviate climacteric symptoms. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Post-menopausal Estrogen Receptors positive (ER+) BC patients, aged 45-69, were identified as having bought, at least once, an aromatase inhibitor (AI) or tamoxifen between the years 2000 and 2012 through a pharmaceutical databank in Belgium. Among them, we defined users of a climacteric treatment those who bought, at least once, HRT, vaginal topical estrogens, antidepressants, clonidine and gabapentine. RESULTS: We identified 2530 BC patients. Among them, 45% were buying a treatment known to alleviate menopausal symptoms. The majority of these treatments were non-HRT therapies. HRT and vaginal estrogens were seldom bought (respectively 1.1% and 6%), but 3% bought vaginal estrogens while buying AI. About 9.2% of tamoxifen users patients bought antidepressants implicated in tamoxifen metabolism at the same time as tamoxifen. CONCLUSIONS: Most BC patients follow current guidelines contra-indicating the use of HRT after BC, they use non hormonal therapies. In some cases they use unfortunately antidepressants that may alter the metabolism of tamoxifen.

Postmenopausal hormone therapy: risks and benefits.

Postmenopausal hormone therapy (PMHT) is used for the relief of menopausal symptoms, but the dosage has varied greatly throughout its existence. By the end of the 1990s, PMHT was mainly used to prevent chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, coronary heart disease and dementia, and large prevention trials were undertaken in this context. Following the initial negative reports of these trials, use of PMHT dramatically decreased. These reports noted surprisingly increased risks, notably of coronary heart disease, stroke and breast cancer, in people who used PMHT. Nowadays, considering the currently available data, it seems that an important distinction should be made between the treatment of climacteric symptoms in young, generally healthy, postmenopausal women and the prevention of chronic diseases in elderly women. PMHT seems to be beneficial and safe for postmenopausal symptomatic women aged <60 years. Treatments with a high safety profile should be the preferred option, including low-dose PMHT, oestrogen-only therapy in women who have had a hysterectomy, and vaginal oestrogen therapy for women with atrophic vaginitis. Nonandrogenic progestin might have a reduced thrombotic and breast cancer risk, and transdermal oestrogen could have a reduced thrombotic risk. Nevertheless, PMHT should not be used for the prevention of chronic diseases in the elderly (>70 years old) owing to the increased risk of stroke and breast cancer in these patients.

Update of the evolution of breast cancer incidence in relation to hormone replacement therapy use in Belgium.

BACKGROUND: Several studies reported a decrease in breast cancer (BC) incidence, subsequent to the decrease in hormone replacement therapy (HRT) use. AIM: Although Belgium has one of the highest incidences of BC in Europe and one of the highest rates of HRT use, we were unable, in a previous study, to observe a significant association between BC incidence and HRT changes. In this updated report we added the BC data from incidence years 2007 and 2008. MATERIAL AND METHOD: We used European standardized incidence rates for invasive BC in the age class 50-69 years for Flanders (1999-2008), Brussels and Wallonia (2004-2008), obtained from IMS Health HRT sales data (1997-2008) for Brussels, Flanders and Wallonia. The association between BC incidence and HRT use was analyzed using generalized estimating equations (GEE) in order to take into consideration the dependency between the subsequent data points. RESULTS: There was a significant association between the invasive BC incidence rate and estimated rate of HRT users in the previous year: p-value<0.001. CONCLUSION: Although this study is hampered by a number of limitations, these data support the idea that the drop in BC incidence can be partly attributed to the decrease in HRT use. Since HRT remains the most used medication for climacteric symptoms, we encourage the creation of a prospective registry in Europe, collecting detailed data in various European countries, in order to assess the adjusted increase in BC risk associated with HRT, which may be population and regimen dependent.

Risks of osteoporosis associated with breast cancer treatment: the need to access to preventive treatment.

The results of available clinical studies suggest that breast cancer treatment significantly affect bone turnover, BMD and fracture risk. This is for instance the case for all third-generation aromatase inhibitors. For these reasons it is recommended that breast cancer patients exercise regularly and take daily calcium (1500 mg) and vitamin D (800UI) supplements. Most experts recommend that all women starting medical castration or aromatase inhibitor therapy should be assessed for their risk of osteoporosis and undergo bone mineral density (BMD) measurement by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). Patients with pre-existing osteopenia and osteoporosis should be evaluated for conditions which worsen skeletal health, such as vitamin D deficiency, hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism and hyper-calcuria. If these patients have a BMD score of -2.5 or lower, a low BMD (T-score between -1 and -2.5) and additional risk factors for osteoporosis or fragility fractures, bisphosphonate therapy should be considered. The optimal duration of bisphosphonate therapy is unknown. It should probably be given for as long as aromatase inhibitor therapy is continued. In addition, bisphosphonate therapy may also reduce the risk of bone metastases. This approach seems to be cost effective based on an economic evaluation model.

Improving quality of life after breast cancer: prevention of other diseases.

Many women with breast cancer will be diagnosed at an early stage through screening programmes. Furthermore, most women affected by breast cancer will not die from it but from other diseases, owing to recent improvements in treatment. This article assesses whether breast cancer survivors suffer more frequently from other diseases. Specifically, it examines whether they have a higher incidence of other cancers, cardiovascular events and osteoporotic fractures. Women with breast cancer and three or more co-morbid conditions have a 20-fold higher rate of mortality from causes other than breast cancer and a 4-fold higher rate of all-cause mortality when compared with patients who have none. Breast cancer survivors are at increased risk of other cancers, such as stomach, colorectal and lung. Radiotherapy, trastuzumab and aromatase inhibitors increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, tamoxifen does not, although it is associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism. Aromatase inhibitors, but not tamoxifen, increase the risk of osteoporotoic fracture and bisphosphonate therapy should be considered.

Influence of HRT on prognostic factors for breast cancer: a systematic review after the Women's Health Initiative trial.

INTRODUCTION: Mortality due to breast cancer has been reported to be the same or even lower in HRT users than in non-users. This has been attributed to earlier diagnosis and to better prognosis. Nevertheless, more advanced disease in HRT users was reported recently by the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study. The objective of this study was to assess, using a systematic review of current literature, whether the data of the WHI study are in contradiction to observational data. METHODS: We selected 25 studies, for which we evaluated the methodology, the characteristics of the studied populations, confounding breast cancer risk factors and prognostic indicators. RESULTS: The WHI study, showing a worsening of some prognostic parameters, is in contradiction to most published observational studies. Most observational studies are retrospective, not well matched and did not consider most confounding factors. Their methodology and selection criteria varied considerably and the number of patients was often small. No differences in the distributions of histology, grade or steroid receptors were observed in the WHI trial, while this was the case in some of the observational studies. Other parameters (S phase, protein Neu, Bcl-2 gene, protein p53 and E-cadherin, cathepsin D) were not reported in the WHI trial. CONCLUSIONS: In view of these data, the current clinical message to patients should be changed: one can no longer declare that breast cancers developed while using HRT are of better prognosis.