Diseases and Pests of Honey Bees (Apis Mellifera).

Infectious and parasitic diseases plague honey bees similarly to that of other food animal species. A complete understanding of each is necessary for a honey bee veterinarian to establish a strong veterinarian-client-patient relationship and make sound treatment recommendations. Control and management of these diseases is paramount to success of the colony and apiary operation. The following is not meant to be an end-all of information on each of the common honey bee diseases but more so a review and photo-documentation of each. A deeper understanding can be established through various other sources previously published and referenced in this document.

Common Noninfectious Conditions of the Honey bees (Apis mellifera) Colony.

Honey bee colonies can be afflicted by serious conditions beyond infectious etiologies. Noninfectious conditions, such as starvation, laying worker colonies, and environmental dysregulation, can be as devastating as any disease. Improper hive monitoring and care often are the underlying causes of noninfectious conditions and each condition may be prevented by instituting best management practices.

Honey Bees and Humane Euthanasia.

Euthanasia of animals is a cornerstone of veterinary medicine. Currently, no official criteria are set for the euthanasia or dispatch of a honey bee colony. Many methods are used around the world and vary with regards to technique, materials, volume of agent used, and timing. Each method described has its own level of effectiveness, safety, and humaneness. Although current, commonly used, methodologies may not meet the criteria of humane euthanasia, veterinarians can still apply the professional standard to other key aspects of the act of euthanasia.

Common and Emerging Infectious Diseases of Honeybees (Apis mellifera).

Most honeybee diseases are not newly emerging diseases; however, honeybee veterinary medicine and disease understanding are emerging concepts for veterinarians in the United States. Beekeepers in the hobby and commercial sectors need a prescription or veterinary feed directive from a veterinarian to obtain medically important antibiotics for administration to their honeybees. Medically important antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, lincomycin, and tylosin were removed from over-the-counter availability for use in honeybees. There are many other aspects of beekeeping that allow veterinarians to build a strong veterinarian-client patient relationship, and fulfill an integral role alongside apiarists.

Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB (Sanfilippo syndrome B) in a commercial emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) flock.

Clinicopathological diagnosis of mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB (MPS IIIB; Sanfilippo syndrome B), an inherited autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disease, as a cause of losses in a commercial emu flock and screening breeders using a mutation-specific DNA test are described. Between 2012 and 2015, ∼5-10 juvenile emus from a few weeks to several months of age developed progressive neurological signs and died while others in the flock remained healthy. Necropsy of two affected siblings revealed multiple sites of haemorrhage, cytoplasmic periodic acid-Schiff and Luxol fast blue-positive inclusions in neurons, and aggregates of foamy macrophages in visceral organs. Affected emus were homozygous for the two-base deletion in the α-N-acetylglucosaminidase gene that causes MPS IIIB in emus. Mutation-specific DNA tests for MPS IIIB in emus were developed. Screening blood samples from 78 breeding emus revealed 14 (18%; 9 males, 4 females, and 1 unknown gender) carriers; an overall 0.09 mutant α-N-acetylglucosaminidase allele frequency. A "test and cull male carriers" programme, in which carrier males are culled but carrier females are retained, was proposed to avoid breeding affected emus together, ultimately eliminating the disease from future broods, and preserving the gene pool with as much breeding stock as possible. Molecular genetic diagnostic tests are simple, precise, and permit screening of all breeders for the mutant allele in any flock and can be used to eliminate MPS IIIB-related emu losses through informed breeding.

Management and Case Outcome of Gastric Impaction in Four Raptors: A Case Series.

Four captive raptors, an American kestrel ( Falco sparverius ), peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ), golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ), and barn owl ( Tyto alba ), were diagnosed with ventricular and/or proventricular foreign material impactions consisting of artificial turf substrate, paper and plastic substrate, grass, and newspaper. Partial or total anorexia was reported in all birds and decreased casting in 2 birds. Survey radiographs confirmed presence of gastric enlargement in all 4 birds. The kestrel and eagle were treated unsuccessfully with gastroscopy and gastric lavage, respectively, followed by surgical intervention to remove the ventricular impactions. Both birds died of undetermined causes after surgery. The peregrine falcon died before medical or surgical intervention was started, and the owl was managed successfully with oral mineral oil and liquid diet to facilitate egestion of the foreign material as a pellet. Lead poisoning was suspected as the predisposing cause for foreign body ingestion in the eagle, but underlying causes for pica in the other birds were not determined. Radiographs can provide useful diagnostic information in sick raptors that exhibit vomiting or changes in appetite or casting frequency, and may help guide treatment decisions of impacted birds. Careful consideration of substrate, enrichment items, and access to potential foreign material that could be ingested may be the best pre-emptive management strategy in captive raptors.

TRICAINE METHANESULFONATE (MS-222) SEDATION AND ANESTHESIA IN THE PURPLE-SPINED SEA URCHIN (ARBACIA PUNCTULATA).

The purple-spined sea urchin ( Arbacia punctulata ) is commonly found in shallow waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from the New England area of the United States to the Caribbean. Sea urchins play a major role in ocean ecology, echinoculture, and biomedical research. Additionally, sea urchins are commonly displayed in public aquaria. Baseline parameters were developed in unanesthetized urchins for righting reflex (time to regain oral recumbency) and spine response time to tactile stimulus. Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) was used to sedate and anesthetize purple-spined sea urchins and assess sedation and anesthetic parameters, including adhesion to and release from a vertical surface, times to loss of response to tactile stimulus and recovery of righting reflex, and qualitative observations of induction of spawning and position of spines and pseudopodia. Sedation and anesthetic parameters were evaluated in 11 individuals in three circumstances: unaltered aquarium water for baseline behaviors, 0.4 g/L MS-222, and 0.8 g/L MS-222. Induction was defined as the release from a vertical surface with the loss of righting reflex, sedation as loss of righting reflex with retained tactile spine response, anesthesia as loss of righting reflex and loss of tactile spine response, and recovery as voluntary return to oral recumbency. MS-222 proved to be an effective sedative and anesthetic for the purple-spined sea urchin at 0.4 and 0.8 g/L, respectively. Sodium bicarbonate used to buffer MS-222 had no measurable sedative effects when used alone. Anesthesia was quickly reversed with transfer of each individual to anesthesia-free seawater, and no anesthetic-related mortality occurred. The parameters assessed in this study provide a baseline for sea urchin anesthesia and may provide helpful comparisons to similar species and populations that are in need of anesthesia for surgical procedures or research.