Physiological and behavioural strategies of aquatic animals living in fluctuating environments.

Shallow or near-shore environments, such as ponds, estuaries and intertidal zones, are among the most physiologically challenging of all aquatic settings. Animals inhabiting these environments experience conditions that fluctuate markedly over relatively short temporal and spatial scales. Living in these habitats requires the ability to tolerate the physiological disturbances incurred by these environmental fluctuations. This tolerance is achieved through a suite of physiological and behavioural responses that allow animals to maintain homeostasis, including the ability to dynamically modulate their physiology through reversible phenotypic plasticity. However, maintaining the plasticity to adjust to some stresses in a dynamic environment may trade off with the capacity to deal with other stressors. This paper will explore studies on select fishes and invertebrates exposed to fluctuations in dissolved oxygen, salinity and pH. We assess the physiological mechanisms these species employ to achieve homeostasis, with a focus on the plasticity of their responses, and consider the resulting physiological trade-offs in function. Finally, we discuss additional factors that may influence organismal responses to fluctuating environments, such as the presence of multiple stressors, including parasites. We echo recent calls from experimental biologists to consider physiological responses to life in naturally fluctuating environments, not only because they are interesting in their own right but also because they can reveal mechanisms that may be crucial for living with increasing environmental instability as a consequence of climate change.

Social dynamics obscure the effect of temperature on air breathing in Corydoras catfish.

In some fishes, the ability to breathe air has evolved to overcome constraints in hypoxic environments but comes at a cost of increased predation. To reduce this risk, some species perform group air breathing. Temperature may also affect the frequency of air breathing in fishes, but this topic has received relatively little research attention. This study examined how acclimation temperature and acute exposure to hypoxia affected the air-breathing behaviour of a social catfish, the bronze corydoras Corydoras aeneus, and aimed to determine whether individual oxygen demand influenced the behaviour of entire groups. Groups of seven fish were observed in an arena to measure air-breathing frequency of individuals and consequent group air-breathing behaviour, under three oxygen concentrations (100%, 60% and 20% air saturation) and two acclimation temperatures (25 and 30°C). Intermittent flow respirometry was used to estimate oxygen demand of individuals. Increasingly severe hypoxia increased air breathing at the individual and group levels. Although there were minimal differences in air-breathing frequency among individuals in response to an increase in temperature, the effect of temperature that did exist manifested as an increase in group air-breathing frequency at 30°C. Groups that were more socially cohesive during routine activity took more breaths but, in most cases, air breathing among individuals was not temporally clustered. There was no association between an individual's oxygen demand and its air-breathing frequency in a group. For C.aeneus, although air-breathing frequency is influenced by hypoxia, behavioural variation among groups could explain the small overall effect of temperature on group air-breathing frequency.