Determination of Bioavailable Aluminum in Natural Waters in the Presence of Suspended Solids.

Analyses of natural waters frequently show elevated levels of total aluminum (Al) attributable to acid extraction of Al from the total suspended solids (TSS) minerals. Hence, there is a need for an analytical method that measures only bioavailable Al. Natural waters high in TSS were collected to study the chronic effects of Al on Ceriodaphnia dubia. In the collected waters TSS ranged from 30 to 411 mg/L; total Al concentrations ranged from 2.0 to 44.8 mg/L. The TSS in natural waters inhibited reproduction of C. dubia up to 40% in comparison to the same filtered waters. This inhibition did not correlate with the concentration of TSS or total Al; it was attributed to nutritional deficiency and was prevented by increasing the food supply. To demonstrate that toxicity can be measured in natural waters, samples with elevated TSS were spiked with soluble Al, and survival and reproduction were measured in chronic studies performed at pH 6.3 and 8.0. To properly characterize the Al concentrations in the toxicity studies, a method was needed that could discriminate bioavailable Al from mineral forms of Al. An extraction method at pH 4 for bioavailable Al was developed and evaluated using C. dubia chronic toxicity studies in the presence of TSS. It is concluded that the proposed method is better able to discriminate chronic toxicity effects attributable to bioavailable Al from mineralized nontoxic forms of Al compared with existing methods using total or total recoverable Al (i.e., extraction at pH ≤ 1.5). We propose that this new method be used when assessing the potential for Al in natural surface waters to cause toxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:1668-1681. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

Modeling the Fate of Metal Concentrates in Surface Water.

Metals present in concentrates are in a solid form and are not bioavailable, but they can dissolve or potentially transform to more soluble forms. Transformation/dissolution laboratory protocols have been developed to assess the importance of dissolution of sparingly soluble metal substances in the context of hazard classification; however, these tests represent worst-case scenarios for metal bioavailability because attenuation mechanisms such as complexation, sorption, and transport to the sediment are not considered. A unit world model (UWM) for metals in lakes, tableau input coupled kinetics equilibrium transport (TICKET)-UWM, has been developed that considers key processes affecting metal transport, fate, and toxicity including complexation by aqueous inorganic and ligands, partitioning to dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate organic carbon (POC), precipitation, and transport of dissolved metals and solids between the water column and sediment. The TICKET-UWM model was used to assess the fate of a metal concentrate and dissolved metal ions released from the concentrate following an instantaneous input to a generalized lake. Concentrate dissolution rates in the water column were parameterized using results from batch transformation/dissolution tests for 2 specific concentrates containing lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and cobalt (Co). The TICKET-UWM results for a generalized lake environment showed that water column concentrations of metals in the lake environment after 28 d were several orders of magnitude lower than the 28-d concentration from the transformation/dissolution tests because Pb, Cu, and Co partitioned to POC in the water column and were subsequently removed due to settling. Resuspension of sediment served to increase total metal in the water column, but the resulting concentrations were still much lower than the 28-d concentrations from the transformation/dissolution tests. Information from TICKET-UWM could be used to refine the environmental hazard profiles of metals. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:1256-1272. © 2019 SETAC.

Evaluating the effects of pH, hardness, and dissolved organic carbon on the toxicity of aluminum to freshwater aquatic organisms under circumneutral conditions.

Although it is well known that increasing water hardness and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations mitigate the toxicity of aluminum (Al) to freshwater organisms in acidic water (i.e., pH < 6), these effects are less well characterized in natural waters at circumneutral pHs for which most aquatic life regulatory protection criteria apply (i.e., pH 6-8). The evaluation of Al toxicity under varying pH conditions may also be confounded by the presence of Al hydroxides and freshly precipitated Al in newly prepared test solutions. Aging and filtration of test solutions were found to greatly reduce toxicity, suggesting that toxicity from transient forms of Al could be minimized and that precipitated Al hydroxides contribute significantly to Al toxicity under circumneutral conditions, rather than dissolved or monomeric forms. Increasing pH, hardness, and DOC were found to have a protective effect against Al toxicity for fish (Pimephales promelas) and invertebrates (Ceriodaphnia dubia, Daphnia magna). For algae (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata), the protective effects of increased hardness were only apparent at pH 6, less so at pH 7, and at pH 8, increased hardness appeared to increase the sensitivity of algae to Al. The results support the need for water quality-based aquatic life protection criteria for Al, rather than fixed value criteria, as being a more accurate predictor of Al toxicity in natural waters. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:49-60. © 2017 SETAC.

Effect of Fe (III) on Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata at circumneutral pH in standard laboratory tests is explained by nutrient sequestration.

The complex chemistry of iron (Fe) at circumneutral pH in oxygenated waters and the poor correlation between ecotoxicity results in laboratory and natural waters have led to regulatory approaches for iron based on field studies (US Environmental Protection Agency Water Quality Criteria and European Union Water Framework Directive proposal for Fe). The results of the present study account for the observed differences between laboratory and field observations for Fe toxicity to algae (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata). Results from standard 72-h assays with Fe at pH 6.3 and pH 8 resulted in similar toxicity values measured as algal biomass, with 50% effect concentrations (EC50) of 3.28 mg/L and 4.95 mg/L total Fe(III), respectively. At the end of the 72-h exposure, however, dissolved Fe concentrations were lower than 30 µg/L for all test concentrations, making a direct toxic effect of dissolved iron on algae unlikely. Analysis of nutrient concentrations in the artificial test media detected phosphorus depletion in a dose-dependent manner that correlated well with algal toxicity. Subsequent experiments adding excess phosphorus after Fe precipitation eliminated the toxicity. These results strongly suggest that observed Fe(III) toxicity on algae in laboratory conditions is a secondary effect of phosphorous depletion. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:952-958. © 2016 SETAC.

Migration protocol to estimate metal exposure from mouthing copper and tin alloy objects.

BACKGROUND: Low blood lead levels previously thought to pose no health risks may have an adverse impact on the cognitive development of children. This concern has given rise to new regulatory restrictions upon lead metal containing products intended for child use. However few reliable experimental testing methods to estimate exposure levels from these materials are available. METHODS: The present work describes a migration test using a mimetic saliva fluid to estimate the chronic exposure of children to metals such as lead while mouthing metallic objects. The surrogate saliva medium was composed of: 150 mM NaCl, 0.16% porcine Mucin and 5 mM buffer MOPS, adjusted to pH 7.2. Alloys samples, in the form of polished metallic disc of known surface area, were subjected to an eight hours test. RESULTS: Two whitemetal alloys Sn/Pb/Sb/Cu and three brass alloys Cu/Zn/Pb were tested using the saliva migration protocol. In the case of the whitemetal alloys, first order release kinetics resulting in the release of 0.03 and 0.51 µg lead/cm2 after 8 hours of tests were observed, for lead contents of 0.05-0.07% and 5.5%, respectively. Brasses exhibited linear incremental release rates of 0.043, 0.175 and 0.243 µg lead/cm2h for lead contents of 0.1-0.2%, 1.7-2.2% and 3.1-3.5%, respectively. The linear regression analysis of lead release rates relative to Pb content in brasses yielded a slope of 0.08 µg lead/cm2h%Pb (r2 = 0.92). Lead release rates were used to estimate the mean daily mouthing exposure of a child to lead, according to age-specific estimates of mouthing time behavior. Calculated daily intakes were used as oral inputs for the IEUBK toxicokinetic model, predicting only marginal changes in blood lead levels (0.2 µg lead/dL or less) for children aged 0.5 to 1 years old exposed to either class of alloy. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study as a whole support the use of migration data of metal ions, rather than total metal content, to estimate health risk from exposure to metals and metal alloys substances in children.

Inter-laboratory validation of bioaccessibility testing for metals.

Bioelution assays are fast, simple alternatives to in vivo testing. In this study, the intra- and inter-laboratory variability in bioaccessibility data generated by bioelution tests were evaluated in synthetic fluids relevant to oral, inhalation, and dermal exposure. Using one defined protocol, five laboratories measured metal release from cobalt oxide, cobalt powder, copper concentrate, Inconel alloy, leaded brass alloy, and nickel sulfate hexahydrate. Standard deviations of repeatability (sr) and reproducibility (sR) were used to evaluate the intra- and inter-laboratory variability, respectively. Examination of the sR:sr ratios demonstrated that, while gastric and lysosomal fluids had reasonably good reproducibility, other fluids did not show as good concordance between laboratories. Relative standard deviation (RSD) analysis showed more favorable reproducibility outcomes for some data sets; overall results varied more between- than within-laboratories. RSD analysis of sr showed good within-laboratory variability for all conditions except some metals in interstitial fluid. In general, these findings indicate that absolute bioaccessibility results in some biological fluids may vary between different laboratories. However, for most applications, measures of relative bioaccessibility are needed, diminishing the requirement for high inter-laboratory reproducibility in absolute metal releases. The inter-laboratory exercise suggests that the degrees of freedom within the protocol need to be addressed.

Crosslinking and mass spectrometry suggest that the isolated NTD domain dimer of Moloney murine leukemia virus integrase adopts a parallel arrangement in solution.

BACKGROUND: Retroviral integrases (INs) catalyze the integration of viral DNA in the chromosomal DNA of the infected cell. This reaction requires the multimerization of IN to coordinate a nucleophilic attack of the 3' ends of viral DNA at two staggered phosphodiester bonds on the recipient DNA. Several models indicate that a tetramer of IN would be required for two-end concerted integration. Complementation assays have shown that the N-terminal domain (NTD) of integrase is essential for concerted integration, contributing to the formation of a multimer through protein-protein interaction. The isolated NTD of Mo-MLV integrase behave as a dimer in solution however the structure of the dimer in solution is not known. RESULTS: In this work, crosslinking and mass spectrometry were used to identify regions involved in the dimerization of the isolated Mo-MLV NTD. The distances between the crosslinked lysines within the monomer are in agreement with the structure of the NTD monomer found in 3NNQ. The intermolecular crosslinked peptides corresponding to Lys 20-Lys 31, Lys 24-Lys 24 and Lys 68-Lys 88 were identified. The 3D coordinates of 3NNQ were used to derive a theoretical structure of the NTD dimer with the suite 3D-Dock, based on shape and electrostatics complementarity, and filtered with the distance restraints determined in the crosslinking experiments. CONCLUSIONS: The crosslinking results are consistent with the monomeric structure of NTD in 3NNQ, but for the dimer, in our model both polypeptides are oriented in parallel with each other and the contacting areas between the monomers would involve the interactions between helices 1 and helices 3 and 4.

Application of an acute biotic ligand model to predict chronic copper toxicity to Daphnia magna in natural waters of Chile and reconstituted synthetic waters.

The objective of the present study was to assess the predictive capacity of the acute Cu biotic ligand model (BLM) as applied to chronic Cu toxicity to Daphnia magna in freshwaters from Chile and synthetic laboratory-prepared waters. Samples from 20 freshwater bodies were taken, chemically characterized, and used in the acute Cu BLM to predict the 21-d chronic Cu toxicity for D. magna. The half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values, determined using the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 21-d reproduction test (OECD Method 211), were compared with the BLM simulated EC50 values. The same EC50 comparison was performed with the results of 19 chronic tests in synthetic media, with a wide range of hardness and alkalinity and a fixed 2 mg/L dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration. The acute BLM was modified only by adjustment of the accumulation associated with 50% of an effect value (EA50). The modified BLM model was able to predict, within a factor of two, 95% of the 21-d EC50 and 89% of the 21-d half-maximal lethal concentrations (LC50) in natural waters, and 100% of the 21-d EC50 and 21-d LC50 in synthetic waters. The regulatory implications of using a slightly modified version of an acute BLM to predict chronic effects are discussed.

Role of the 207-218 peptide region of Moloney murine leukemia virus integrase in enzyme catalysis.

X-ray diffraction data on a few retroviral integrases show a flexible loop near the active site. By sequence alignment, the peptide region 207-218 of Mo-MLV IN appears to correspond to this flexible loop. In this study, residues H208, Y211, R212, Q214, S215 and S216 of Mo-MLV IN were mutated to determine their role on enzyme activity. We found that Y211A, R212A, R212K and Q214A decreased integration activity, while disintegration and 3'-processing were not significantly affected. By contrast H208A was completely inactive in all the assays. The core domain of Mo-MLV integrase was modeled and the flexibility of the region 207-216 was analyzed. Substitutions with low integration activity showed a lower flexibility than wild type integrase. We propose that the peptide region 207-216 is a flexible loop and that H208, Y211, R212 and Q214 of this loop are involved in the correct assembly of the DNA-integrase complex during integration.

Domain folding and flexibility of Escherichia coli FtsZ determined by tryptophan site-directed mutagenesis.

FtsZ has two domains, the amino GTPase domain with a Rossmann fold, and the carboxyl domain that resembles the chorismate mutase fold. Bioinformatics analyses suggest that the interdomain interaction is stronger than the interaction of the protofilament longitudinal interfaces. Crystal B factor analysis of FtsZ and detected conformational changes suggest a connection between these domains. The unfolding/folding characteristics of each domain of FtsZ were tested by introducing tryptophans into the flexible region of the amino (F135W) and the carboxyl (F275W and I294W) domains. As a control, the mutation F40W was introduced in a more rigid part of the amino domain. These mutants showed a native-like structure with denaturation and renaturation curves similar to wild type. However, the I294W mutant showed a strong loss of functionality, both in vivo and in vitro when compared to the other mutants. The functionality was recovered with the double mutant I294W/F275A, which showed full in vivo complementation with a slight increment of in vitro GTPase activity with respect to the single mutant. The formation of a stabilizing aromatic interaction involving a stacking between the tryptophan introduced at position 294 and phenylalanine 275 could account for these results. Folding/unfolding of these mutants induced by guanidinium chloride was compatible with a mechanism in which both domains within the protein show the same stability during FtsZ denaturation and renaturation, probably because of strong interface interactions.

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer and molecular modeling studies on 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) complexes with tubulin.

The goal of this work was to determine the binding properties and location of 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) complexed with tubulin. Using fluorescence anisotropy, a dissociation constant of 5.2+/-0.4 microM for the DAPI-tubulin complex was determined, slightly lower than that for the tubulin S complex. The influence of the C-terminal region on the binding of DAPI to tubulin was also characterized. Using FRET experiments, and assuming a kappa2 value of 2/3, distances between Co2+ bound to its high-affinity binding site and the DAPI-binding site and 2',3'-O-(trinitrophenyl)guanosine 5'-triphosphate bound to the exchangeable nucleotide and the DAPI-binding site were found to be 20+/-2 A and 43+/-2 A, respectively. To locate potential DAPI-binding sites on tubulin, a molecular modeling study was carried out using the tubulin crystal structure and energy minimization calculations. The results from the FRET measurements were used to limit the possible location of DAPI in the tubulin structure. Several candidate binding sites were found and these are discussed in the context of the various properties of bound DAPI.