Climate-mediated population dynamics for the world's most endangered sea turtle species.

Restricted range, and subsequently small population size, render Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) the most globally endangered sea turtle species. For at least two decades preceding conservation, high egg harvest rates reduced annual cohort recruitment. Despite > 50 years of dedicated conservation, annual nest counts remain well below a landmark 1947 level. Prior studies attribute less robust than anticipated nest count rebound to multiple contemporary concerns; however, analyses herein convey optimistic interpretation. In objective 1, improved analysis of the ratio of hatchlings to nests since 1966 suggested age structure stabilization as a more likely basis for nest count trends after 2005 than density-dependent effects. In objective 2, multiple regression revealed a lagged (≤ 13 years prior) climate influence on nests (adj. r2 = 0.82) and hatchlings per nest (adj. r2 = 0.94) during 2006-2022. In objectives 3 and 4, a simulator modeled population response to changes in a suite of demographic rates including survival. Across 32 models, high survival and dynamic cohort sex ratio, sexual maturity age, and the ratio of clutch frequency to remigration interval best explained nesting trends during 1966-2022. These novel findings provide alternative perspective for evaluating species recovery criteria and in turn refine future nest trend expectations.

Using Plasma Vitellogenin in Loggerhead Sea Turtles to Assess Reproductive Maturation and Estrogen-Like Contaminant Exposure.

Vitellogenin (VTG), an egg yolk precursor, is abnormally produced by male and juvenile oviparous species after exposure to estrogens. Plasma VTG in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) helped us understand their reproductive maturation and investigate it as a biomarker of contaminant exposure. The presence of VTG was screened in plasma from 404 loggerheads from the northwestern Atlantic Ocean using a freshwater turtle antibody in western blots. The concentrations of VTG were semiquantified using band intensities calibrated to results from a loggerhead antibody enzyme-linked immunoassay. The detection and concentrations of VTG were in (from highest to lowest): nesting females, in-water adult females, subadult females, smaller females, unknown sex, and males. Loggerheads from this region begin vitellogenesis at ≅77 cm straight carapace length. We classified VTG expression as abnormal in nine male or juvenile turtles. Organochlorine contaminant (OC) concentrations were measured in blood and/or fat biopsies of some turtles. One abnormal VTG female had the second highest fat polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene concentrations compared among 43 VTG-negative juveniles. The nine VTG-abnormal turtles had average blood PCB concentrations 8.5% higher, but not significantly different, than 46 VTG-negative juveniles (p = 0.453). In turtles less than 77 cm, blood PCB concentrations were significantly, but weakly, correlated with semiquantified VTG concentrations (tau = 0.1, p = 0.004). Greater blood OC concentrations were found in adult females than in males, which motivated the creation of a conceptual model of OC, VTG, and hormone concentrations across a reproductive cycle. A decision tree is also provided incorporating VTG as a sexing tool. Abnormal VTG expression cannot conclusively be linked to endocrine disruption caused by these OC concentrations. Studies should further investigate causes of abnormal VTG expression in wild sea turtles. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:1309-1325. © 2023 SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

Correction: Turner et al. Steatitis in Cold-Stunned Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtles (Lepidochelys kempii). Animals 2021, 11, 898.

In the original publication [...].

Health and nutrition of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States.

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) are opportunistic carnivores that feed primarily on benthic invertebrates and fish. Sea turtle rehabilitation requires provision of a species-specific, balanced diet that supplies nutrition similar to that of a wild diet; this can be challenging because free-ranging loggerheads' diets vary depending on their life stage and geographic location, with predominant prey species dictated by local availability. The goal of this study was to better understand the nutritional needs of subadult and adult loggerheads in rehabilitation. This was accomplished by conducting a retrospective survey of stomach contents identified during gross necropsy of 153 deceased loggerheads that stranded in coastal Georgia, USA. A total of 288 different forage items were identified; the most frequently observed prey items belong to the subphylum Crustacea (N = 131), followed by bony fish (Osteichthyes; N = 45), gastropod mollusks (N = 40), bivalve mollusks (N = 23), and Atlantic horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus; N = 15). The proportions of certain prey items differed significantly with turtle size; adult turtles ate proportionately more gastropods (p = 0.001), and subadults ate proportionately more fish (p = 0.01). Stomach contents information was used to determine common local prey items (blue crab, cannonball jellyfish, horseshoe crab, whelk), which were evaluated for nutritional content. Additionally, we compared hematology and plasma biochemistry profiles (including proteins, trace minerals, and vitamins) between four cohorts of loggerhead turtles, including free-ranging subadults and adults, nesting females, and loggerheads undergoing rehabilitation. This information was applied to inform a regionally specific, formulated diet for tube feeding, and a supplement containing vitamins and minerals for captive loggerheads, to more closely approximate the nutritional content of their natural diet. Assessing the regional and temporal variability in loggerhead diets is an important component in their effective conservation because resultant data can be used to help understand the impacts of environmental perturbations on benthic food webs.

Theoretical modeling and neritic monitoring of loggerhead Caretta caretta [Linnaeus, 1758] sea turtle sex ratio in the southeast United States do not substantiate fears of a male-limited population.

Sea turtles are among several hundred species whose sex is determined by incubation conditions during critical developmental periods. Consequently, these marine reptiles may be vulnerable to global climate change, and under the assumption of continued climate warming, numerous studies pose dire predictions for future populations based primarily on hatchling sex ratio data. Alternatively, as long-lived species that take decades to reach maturity, without inherent coping mechanisms for such change, sea turtles could not have persisted across geological epochs. Globally, loggerhead Caretta caretta [Linnaeus, 1758] sea turtles occupy temperate zones, with ontogenetic development that spans the entirety of gyres associated with respective ocean basins. The largest rookery for this species occurs in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean (NWA) population, where a 30-year cycle in annual nest counts is reported through 2018. Complementary studies document a lagged association between these annual nest counts and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO); however, the underlying mechanism for this association remains elusive. Therefore, objective 1 evaluated the effect of AMO-mediated cohort resonance on the demographic structure of a theoretical neritic assemblage under variable cohort abundance and female proportion but stable annual survival during 165-year runs (i.e., extent of AMO data). For objective 2, blood samples were used to assign sex to 2217 loggerhead sea turtles captured by research trawling (2000 to 2019) on the inner continental shelf from St. Augustine, FL (29.9°N) to Winyah Bay, SC (33.1°N). Shorter oceanic duration of less female-biased cohorts from the AMO cold phase synchronized peak adult male and adult female co-occurrence during subsequent warm phases three decades later. Grand sex ratio predicted from testosterone was 67% female (n = 1484), with a slight temporal female decline. Our findings suggest greater population sex ratio plasticity than predicted solely from terrestrial nesting data.

Steatitis in Cold-Stunned Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtles (Lepidochelys kempii).

The pathogenesis of steatitis that infrequently occurs in cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (KRT; Lepidochelys kempii) has been undetermined. The objectives of this study were to investigate the clinical (n = 23) and histologic findings (n = 11) in cold-stunned KRT, and to compare plasma concentrations of α-tocopherol (vitamin E), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and the TBARS to vitamin E (T/E) ratio (an assessment of oxidative stress) between cold-stunned KRT with clinically and/or histologically confirmed steatitis (n = 10) and free-ranging KRT (n = 9). None of the cold-stunned turtles had clinically detectable steatitis at admission, and the median number of days to diagnosis of steatitis was 71 (range 33­469). Histologic findings of affected adipose tissue included heterophilic (n = 9) and/or histiocytic (n = 5) steatitis, fat necrosis (n = 7), myonecrosis (n = 2), and intralesional bacteria (n = 6). Cold-stunned KRT had significantly lower plasma vitamin E concentrations (median = 3.5 nmol/g), lower plasma TBARS concentrations (median = 1.6 nmol/g), and higher T/E ratios (median = 0.50), than controls (62.3 nmol/g; 2.1 nmol/g; 0.03, respectively). These results suggest a multifactorial etiology for the development of steatitis in KRT during rehabilitation, including tissue injury, septicemia, and various factors resulting in imbalances of anti-/oxidative status. By highlighting the need to provide more effective vitamin E supplementation, and the need to re-assess specific components of the diet, this study may lead to reduced incidence and improved medical management of steatitis in cold-stunned sea turtles.

Comparison of 2 glucose analytical methodologies in immature Kemp's ridley sea turtles: dry chemistry of plasma versus point-of-care glucometer analysis of whole blood.

Blood glucose measurements provide important diagnostic information regarding stress, disease, and nutritional status. Glucose analytical methodologies include dry chemistry analysis (DCA) of plasma and point-of-care (POC) glucometer analysis of whole blood; however, these 2 methods differ in cost, required sample volume, and processing time. Because POC glucometers use built-in equations based on features of mammalian blood to convert whole blood measurements to plasma equivalent units, obtained glucose data must be compared and validated using gold-standard chemistry analytical methodology in reptiles. For in-water, trawl-captured, immature Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) from Georgia, USA, we observed significant, positive agreement between the 2 glucose determination methods; however, the glucometer overestimated glucose concentrations by 1.4 mmol/L on average in comparison to DCA and produced a wider range of results. The discordance of these results suggests that POC glucometer glucose data should be interpreted in the context of methodology- and brand-specific reference intervals along with concurrent packed cell volume data.

Blood analytes of immature Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) from Georgia, USA: reference intervals and body size correlations.

Health assessments of wildlife species are becoming increasingly important in an ever-changing environment. Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii; hereafter, Kemp's ridleys) are critically endangered and incur several on-going threats to their population recovery; therefore, it is imperative to advance the understanding of baseline blood analyte data as a diagnostic and monitoring tool. For in-water, trawl-captured, immature Kemp's ridleys (minimum N = 31) from Georgia, USA, the objectives of this study were to (1) establish reference intervals (RIs) for packed cell volume (PCV) and 27 plasma biochemistry analytes and (2) determine length-specific relationships in blood analytes. We observed significant positive correlations between minimum straight carapace length and PCV, amylase, calcium:phosphorus ratio, cholesterol, magnesium, triglycerides, total solids, total protein and all protein fractions (e.g. alpha-, beta- and gamma-globulins); aspartate aminotransferase and chloride showed significant negative relationships. These results suggest that certain blood analytes in Kemp's ridleys change as these animals grow, presumptively due to somatic growth and dietary shifts. The information presented herein, in due consideration of capture technique that may have impacted glucose and potassium concentrations, represents the first report of blood analyte RIs for Kemp's ridley sea turtles established by guidelines of the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology and will have direct applications for stranded individuals in rehabilitative care and for future investigations into the health status of wild individuals from this population.

Chronic debilitation in stranded loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States: Morphometrics and clinicopathological findings.

Chronically debilitated loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) (DT) are characterized by emaciation, lethargy, and heavy barnacle coverage. Although histopathological findings associated with this condition have been reported, only limited data is available on health variables with clinical application. The objectives of this study were to 1) to compare morphometrics, clinicopathological variables, and immune functions of DTs to a group of apparently healthy loggerhead turtles to better understand the pathophysiology of the condition and 2) to assess health parameters in live debilitated turtles as they recovered during rehabilitation in order to identify potential prognostic indicators. We examined and sampled 43 DTs stranded from North Carolina to Florida for 47 health variables using standardized protocols to further characterize the condition. DTs were grouped into categories of severity of the condition, and those that survived were sampled at four time points through rehabilitation. All groups and time points were compared among DTs and to clinically healthy loggerhead turtles. Compared to healthy turtles, DTs had significantly lower body condition index, packed cell volume (PCV), total white blood cell (WBC) count, lymphocytes, glucose (Glc), total protein, all protein fractions as determined by electrophoresis, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), Ca:P ratio, potassium (K), lymphocyte proliferation, and greater heterophil toxicity and left-shifting, uric acid (UA), aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, lysozyme, and respiratory burst. From admission to recovery, hematology and plasma chemistry data improved as expected. The most informative prognostic indicators, as determined by correlations with a novel severity indicator (based on survival times), were plastron concavity, P, albumin, total solids, UA, lymphocyte proliferation, WBC, K, Glc, Ca:P, and PCV. The results of this study document the wide range and extent of morphometric and metabolic derangements in chronically debilitated turtles. Monitoring morphometrics and clinicopathological variables of these animals is essential for diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis during rehabilitation.

Historical versus contemporary climate forcing on the annual nesting variability of loggerhead sea turtles in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean.

A recent analysis suggested that historical climate forcing on the oceanic habitat of neonate sea turtles explained two-thirds of interannual variability in contemporary loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtle nest counts in Florida, where nearly 90% of all nesting by this species in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean occurs. Here, we show that associations between annual nest counts and climate conditions decades prior to nest counts and those conditions one year prior to nest counts were not significantly different. Examination of annual nest count and climate data revealed that statistical artifacts influenced the reported 31-year lag association with nest counts. The projected importance of age 31 neophytes to annual nest counts between 2020 and 2043 was modeled using observed nest counts between 1989 and 2012. Assuming consistent survival rates among cohorts for a 5% population growth trajectory and that one third of the mature female population nests annually, the 41% decline in annual nest counts observed during 1998-2007 was not projected for 2029-2038. This finding suggests that annual nest count trends are more influenced by remigrants than neophytes. Projections under the 5% population growth scenario also suggest that the Peninsular Recovery Unit could attain the demographic recovery criteria of 106,100 annual nests by 2027 if nest counts in 2019 are at least comparable to 2012. Because the first year of life represents only 4% of the time elapsed through age 31, cumulative survival at sea across decades explains most cohort variability, and thus, remigrant population size. Pursuant to the U.S. Endangered Species Act, staggered implementation of protection measures for all loggerhead life stages has taken place since the 1970s. We suggest that the 1998-2007 nesting decline represented a lagged perturbation response to historical anthropogenic impacts, and that subsequent nest count increases since 2008 reflect a potential recovery response.

Persistent organic pollutants in blood plasma of satellite-tracked adult male loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta).

Risks from persistent organic pollutants (POPs) remain largely a mystery for threatened loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). The present study examines regional-scale POP differences in blood plasma from adult male C. caretta based on movement patterns. Turtles were captured near Port Canaveral, Florida, USA, in April of 2006 and 2007 and fitted with satellite transmitters as part of a National Marine Fisheries Service-funded project. Residents (n = 9) remained near the capture site, whereas transients (n = 10) migrated northward, becoming established in areas largely from south of Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, to north of Cape May, New Jersey, USA. Blood was sampled from the dorsocervical sinus of each turtle and analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and toxaphenes. Blood plasma concentrations of OCPs and total PBDEs were elevated in transients (p < 0.05) and in some cases were correlated with turtle size. Migratory adults showed an atypical PBDE congener profile relative to other published studies on wildlife, with PBDE 154 being the dominant congener. Additionally, PCB congener patterns differed between groups, with total PCBs slightly elevated in transients. This supports the idea that foraging location can influence exposure to, and patterns of, POPs in highly mobile species such as C. caretta. Understanding patterns of contamination informs wildlife managers about possible health risks to certain subpopulations. The present study is the first to examine POPs in the rarely studied adult male sea turtle and to couple contaminant measurements with satellite tracking.

Relationship of blood mercury levels to health parameters in the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta).

BACKGROUND: Mercury is a pervasive environmental pollutant whose toxic effects have not been studied in sea turtles in spite of their threatened status and evidence of immunosuppression in diseased populations. OBJECTIVES: In the present study we investigate mercury toxicity in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) by examining trends between blood mercury concentrations and various health parameters. METHODS: Blood was collected from free-ranging turtles, and correlations between blood mercury concentrations and plasma chemistries, complete blood counts, lysozyme, and lymphocyte proliferation were examined. Lymphocytes were also harvested from free-ranging turtles and exposed in vitro to methylmercury to assess proliferative responses. RESULTS: Blood mercury concentrations were positively correlated with hematocrit and creatine phosphokinase activity, and negatively correlated with lymphocyte cell counts and aspartate amino-transferase. Ex vivo negative correlations between blood mercury concentrations and B-cell proliferation were observed in 2001 and 2003 under optimal assay conditions. In vitro exposure of peripheral blood leukocytes to methylmercury resulted in suppression of proliferative responses for B cells (0.1 microg/g and 0.35 microg/g) and T cells (0.7 microg/g). CONCLUSIONS: The positive correlation between blood mercury concentration and hematocrit reflects the higher affinity of mercury species for erythrocytes than plasma, and demonstrates the importance of measuring hematocrit when analyzing whole blood for mercury. In vitro immunosuppression occurred at methylmercury concentrations that correspond to approximately 5% of the individuals captured in the wild. This observation and the negative correlation found ex vivo between mercury and lymphocyte numbers and mercury and B-cell proliferative responses suggests that subtle negative impacts of mercury on sea turtle immune function are possible at concentrations observed in the wild.

Perfluorinated compounds in the plasma of loggerhead and Kemp's ridley sea turtles from the southeastern coast of the United States.

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) have been measured in blood of humans and wildlife and are considered globally distributed contaminants. We examined 12 PFCs in the plasma of 73 loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and 6 Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) captured from inshore waters of Core Sound, North Carolina (NC), and offshore waters of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida (SC-FL). Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were the dominant compounds, with respective mean concentrations of 11.0 ng/mL and 3.20 ng/mL for loggerhead turtles and 39.4 ng/mL and 3.57 ng/mL for Kemp's ridley turtles. Mean PFOS concentrations were 2- to 12-fold higher than typical mean sigmaPCB concentrations (approximately 5 ng/g wet mass) measured previously in sea turtle blood. More than 79% of the samples had detectable levels of perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) with 8-12 carbons, whereas only 17% or less of samples had detectable levels of PFCAs with 6 or 7 carbons. No samples had detectable levels of PFCAs with 4 or 5 carbons. In loggerhead turtles, sigmaPFC concentrations were not influenced by sex (p > 0.05), but were higher in turtles captured from inshore waters of NC than in turtles from offshore waters of SC-FL (p = 0.009). A backward stepwise multiple regression model showed that sigmaPFC concentrations were (1) significantly higher in Kemp's ridley turtles than loggerhead turtles (p < 0.0001), (2) higher in larger turtles (p = 0.018; carapace length used as a proxy for age), and (3) higher in turtles captured toward the north (p = 0.006). These findings suggest that bioaccumulation of PFCs in sea turtles is influenced by species, age, and habitat.